Data centers are critical, energy-hungry infrastructures that run large-scale Internet-based services. Energy consumption models are pivotal in designing and optimizing energy-efficient operations to curb excessive energy consumption in data centers. In this paper, we survey the state-of-the-art techniques used for energy consumption modeling and prediction for data centers and their components. We conduct an in-depth study of the existing literature on data center power modeling, covering more than 200 models. We organize these models in a hierarchical structure with two main branches focusing on hardware-centric and software-centric power models. Under hardware-centric approaches we start from the digital circuit level and move on to describe higher-level energy consumption models at the hardware component level, server level, data center level, and finally systems of systems level. Under the software-centric approaches we investigate power models developed for operating systems, virtual machines and software applications. This systematic approach allows us to identify multiple issues prevalent in power modeling of different levels of data center systems, including: i) few modeling efforts targeted at power consumption of the entire data center ii) many state-of-the-art power models are based on a few CPU or server metrics, and iii) the effectiveness and accuracy of these power models remain open questions. Based on these observations, we conclude the survey by describing key challenges for future research on constructing effective and accurate data center power models.

Data Center Energy Consumption Modeling: A Survey

A Review on efficient thermal management of air- and liquid-cooled data centers: From chip to the cooling system

The growing demand for electricity and the increasing size of the carbon footprint of data centers worldwide bring a severe challenge to sustainable development of human civilization. The cooling energy consumption takes up around 30–50% of the total consumption of data centers due to the inefficient cooling system. Free cooling is an effective solution for reducing the power consumption of cooling systems. This paper reviews the advancements of data center free cooling mainly focusing on configuration features and performances. Three kinds of free cooling methods, airside free cooling, waterside free cooling and heat pipe free cooling are discussed and performance characteristics of each are analyzed. Further, the criteria of performance evaluation for free cooling of data centers are summarized, and an overview of free cooling systems based on these criteria is demonstrated in order to help researchers acquire the latest developments in this area.

Free cooling of data centers: A review

Cloud computing is today’s most emphasized Information and Communications Technology (ICT) paradigm that is directly or indirectly used by almost every online user. However, such great significance comes with the support of a great infrastructure that includes large data centers comprising thousands of server units and other supporting equipment. Their share in power consumption generates between 1.1p and 1.5p of the total electricity use worldwide and is projected to rise even more. Such alarming numbers demand rethinking the energy efficiency of such infrastructures. However, before making any changes to infrastructure, an analysis of the current status is required. In this article, we perform a comprehensive analysis of an infrastructure supporting the cloud computing paradigm with regards to energy efficiency. First, we define a systematic approach for analyzing the energy efficiency of most important data center domains, including server and network equipment, as well as cloud management systems and appliances consisting of a software utilized by end users. Second, we utilize this approach for analyzing available scientific and industrial literature on state-of-the-art practices in data centers and their equipment. Finally, we extract existing challenges and highlight future research directions.

/pdf/cloud-computing-survey-on-energy-efficiency-4ieydb3yqx.pdf

Cloud Computing: Survey on Energy Efficiency

Cooling Systems in Data Centers: State of Art and Emerging Technologies

The metric, Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE), has been successful in improving energy efficiency of data centers, but it is not perfect. One challenge is that PUE does not account for the power distribution and cooling losses inside IT equipment. This is particularly problematic in the HPC (high performance computing) space where system suppliers are moving cooling and power subsystems into or out of the cluster. This paper proposes two new metrics: ITUE (IT-power usage effectiveness), similar to PUE but “inside” the IT and TUE (total-power usage effectiveness), which combines the two for a total efficiency picture. We conclude with a demonstration of the method, and a case study of measurements at ORNL’s Jaguar system. TUE provides a ratio of total energy, (internal and external support energy uses) and the specific energy used in the HPC. TUE can also be a means for comparing HPC site to HPC site.

TUE, a New Energy-Efficiency Metric Applied at ORNL’s Jaguar

Author(s): Coles, Henry | Abstract: This report documents a demonstration of an electronic--equipment cooling system in the engineering prototype development stage that can be applied in data centers. The technology provides cooling by bringing a water--based cooling fluid into direct contact with high--heat--generating electronic components. This direct cooling system improves overall data center energy efficiency in three ways: High--heat--generating electronic components are more efficiently cooled directly using water, capturing a large portion of the total electronic equipment heat generated. This captured heat reduces the load on the less--efficient air--based data center room cooling systems. The combination contributes to the overall savings. The power consumption of the electronic equipment internal fans is significantly reduced when equipped with this cooling system. The temperature of the cooling water supplied to the direct cooling system can be much higher than that commonly provided by facility chilled water loops, and therefore can be produced with lower cooling infrastructure energy consumption and possibly compressor-free cooling. Providing opportunities for heat reuse is an additional benefit of this technology. The cooling system can be controlled to produce high return water temperatures while providing adequate component cooling. The demonstration was conducted in a data center located at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley, California. Thirty--eight servers equipped with the liquid cooling system and instrumented for energy measurements were placed in a single rack. Two unmodified servers of the same configuration, located in an adjacent rack, were used to provide a baseline. The demonstration characterized the fraction of heat removed by the direct cooling technology, quantified the energy savings for a number of cooling infrastructure scenarios, and provided information that could be used to investigate heat reuse opportunities. Thermal measurement data were used with data center energy use modeling software to estimate overall site energy use. These estimates show that an overall data center energy savings of approximately 20 percent can be expected if a center is retrofitted as specified in the models used. Increasing the portion of heat captured by this technology is an area suggested for further development.

/pdf/direct-liquid-cooling-for-electronic-equipment-5dr1tfc8i9.pdf

Direct Liquid Cooling for Electronic Equipment

Liquid cooling is key to reducing energy consumption for this generation of supercomputers and remains on the roadmap for the foreseeable future. This is because the heat capacity of liquids is orders of magnitude larger than that of air and once heat has been transferred to a liquid, it can be removed from the datacenter efficiently. The transition from air to liquid cooling is an inflection point providing an opportunity to work collectively to set guidelines for facilitating the energy efficiency of liquid-cooled High Performance Computing (HPC) facilities and systems. The vision is to use non-compressor-based cooling, to facilitate heat re-use, and thereby build solutions that are more energy-efficient, less carbon intensive and more cost effective than their air-cooled predecessors. The Energy Efficient HPC Working Group is developing guidelines for warmer liquid-cooling temperatures in order to standardize facility and HPC equipment, and provide more opportunity for reuse of waste heat. This report describes the development of those guidelines.

https://datacenters.lbl.gov/sites/all/files/Hot%20for%20Warm%20Water%20Cooling.pdf

"Hot" for warm water cooling

This paper discusses data center scale performance characterization of hybrid liquid-air cooling solutions for a full 42U rack of servers. Using data collected in a production data center at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories, we interpret the results with a simple three parameter model which allows characterization of the major factors affecting heat recovery efficiency of the system. The model is shown to agree with a broad set of data under a variety of temperature and workload conditions. To our knowledge, this is the first large scale characterization of a hybrid cooling solution's performance in terms relevant to data center operation. We discuss how this method can be extended to other systems for meaningful comparison of solution performance.

Thermal performance modeling of hybrid liquid-air cooled servers

LBNL-XXXXX Demonstration of Intelligent Control and Fan Improvements in Computer Room Air Handlers Henry Coles and Steve Greenberg, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Corinne Vita, Vigilent Environmental Energy Technologies Division November 2012

/pdf/demonstration-of-intelligent-control-and-fan-improvements-in-1kjv1re3yf.pdf

Demonstration of Intelligent Control and Fan Improvements in Computer Room Air Handlers

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