https://at-web.physik.uni-wuppertal.de/~kampert/Publications-PDF/Antoni-Ulrich-05.pdf

KASCADE measurements of energy spectra for elemental groups of cosmic rays: Results and open problems

This review focuses on high-energy cosmic rays in the PeV energy range and above. Of particular interest is the knee of the spectrum around 3 PeV and the transition from cosmic rays of Galactic origin to particles from extra-galactic sources. Our goal is to establish a baseline spectrum from 1014 to 1020 eV by combining the results of many measurements at different energies. In combination with measurements of the nuclear composition of the primaries, the shape of the energy spectrum places constraints on the number and spectra of sources that may contribute to the observed spectrum.

http://inspirehep.net/record/1223847/files/arXiv:1303.3565.pdf

Cosmic ray energy spectrum from measurements of air showers

Spectrum of cosmic-ray nucleons, kaon production, and the atmospheric muon charge ratio

Results from direct and indirect measurements of cosmic rays are reviewed. Emphasis is given to the understanding of the knee in the energy spectrum. The data are compared to contemporary models for the knee. Implications on the present understanding of the origin of galactic cosmic rays are discussed.

On the knee in the energy spectrum of cosmic rays

Primary cosmic rays above energies of about 100 TeV are investigated by observations of extensive air showers (EAS) using large area ground based detector installations for registering various components of the EAS cascade development. By such indirect studies of the primary cosmic rays a steepening of the power-law spectrum at around 3–5 PeV, known as the knee, has been identified. At higher energies around 5 EeV there appears a further change of the spectral index towards a flattening of the spectrum, called the ankle. The energy region above ca 50 EeV, where a cut-off of the cosmic ray spectrum (Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuz'min (GZK) cut-off) is theoretically predicted, is of particular current interest and provides an astrophysical enigma, since obviously trans-GZK events have been observed. Any explanation of these features of the cosmic ray spectrum needs sufficiently detailed knowledge of the shape of the spectrum and of the variation of the mass composition of cosmic rays. In this paper different experimental approaches deducing mass and energy sensitive information from the EAS experiments and their results are discussed. The experiments involve measurements of secondary particle distributions at various observation levels and of muons by deep underground detectors, as well as measurements of air Cherenkov light and, in particular at higher energies, of air fluorescence light emitted during the EAS development. Recently, methods for analysing multi-dimensional EAS parameter distributions have been favoured. They take into account correlations of different EAS parameters and, in particular by non-parametric techniques, also the influence of the intrinsic fluctuation of the air shower development. This paper illustrates the application of such methods in a coherent view of recent results. The advanced analysing methods are corroborated by hybrid experimental set-ups registering a larger set of different EAS observables simultaneously in an event-by-event mode. In addition such approaches provide the possibility to test the consistency of the hadronic interaction models and Monte Carlo procedures used as reference for the analyses. The physical and astrophysical implications of the current findings in various energy regions are briefly discussed and prospects of future experiments are presented.

/pdf/energy-spectrum-and-mass-composition-of-high-energy-cosmic-5g0imjrrrv.pdf

Energy spectrum and mass composition of high-energy cosmic rays

Measurements of the lateral distribution of Cherenkov photons with the wide-angle atmospheric Cherenkov light detector array AIROBICC and of the charged particle lateral distribution with the scintillator matrix of the HEGRA air-shower detector complex in air showers are reported. They are used in conjunction to determine the energy spectrum and coarse chemical composition of charged cosmic rays in the energy interval from 0.3 PeV to 10 PeV. With the atmospheric shower-front sampling technique these detectors measure the electromagnetic component of an extensive air shower via the lateral density distribution of the shower particles and of the Cherenkov photons. The data are compared with events generated with the CORSIKA program package with the QGSJET hadronic-event generator. Consistency checks performed with primary energy-reconstruction methods based on different shower observables indicate satisfactory agreement between these extensive air shower simulations and the experimental data. This permits to derive results concerning the energy spectrum and composition of charged cosmic rays. The energy spectrum features a so called "knee" at

http://aa.springer.de/papers/0359002/2300682.pdf

Energy spectrum and chemical composition of cosmic rays between 0.3 and 10 PeV determined from the cherenkov-light and charged-particle distributions in air showers

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Energy spectrum and chemical composition of cosmic rays between 0.3 and 10 PeV determined from the cherenkov-light and charged-particle distributions in air showers