For researchers and practitioners interested in social relationships, the question remains as to how large social networks typically are, and how their size and composition change across adulthood. On the basis of predictions of socioemotional selectivity theory and social convoy theory, we conducted a meta-analysis on age-related social network changes and the effects of life events on social networks using 277 studies with 177,635 participants from adolescence to old age. Cross-sectional as well as longitudinal studies consistently showed that (a) the global social network increased up until young adulthood and then decreased steadily, (b) both the personal network and the friendship network decreased throughout adulthood, (c) the family network was stable in size from adolescence to old age, and (d) other networks with coworkers or neighbors were important only in specific age ranges. Studies focusing on life events that occur at specific ages, such as transition to parenthood, job entry, or widowhood, demonstrated network changes similar to such age-related network changes. Moderator analyses detected that the type of network assessment affected the reported size of global, personal, and family networks. Period effects on network sizes occurred for personal and friendship networks, which have decreased in size over the last 35 years. Together the findings are consistent with the view that a portion of normative, age-related social network changes are due to normative, age-related life events. We discuss how these patterns of normative social network development inform research in social, evolutionary, cultural, and personality psychology.

/pdf/social-network-changes-and-life-events-across-the-life-span-216tn68nvf.pdf

Social network changes and life events across the life span: a meta-analysis.

Despite the increasing application of qualitative interviewing and analysis approaches, individuals with expressive language difficulties are still frequently excluded from such research. In this article, the authors seek to clarify the role for and importance of conducting qualitative interviews with respondents with impaired expressive language. They review current research with reference to studies conducted with individuals with intellectual disabilities or dementia, or those who have experienced stroke or traumatic brain injury, and identify deficits within existing research. They consider the challenges and difficulties that contribute to the limited inclusion of individuals with impaired expressive communication in qualitative interviews and discuss the way forward with suggestions of possible means of overcoming these obstacles. They argue that a willingness to adapt methods appropriately and to modify expectations is an important factor in ensuring that researchers hear the voice of respondents with expressive language deficits.

Conducting Qualitative Interview Research With People With Expressive Language Difficulties

The existing empirical literature depicts a complex picture of the role that continuing bonds play in coping with bereavement, with contradictory findings emerging across studies. This article presents an overview of continuing bonds research and highlights several areas ripe for exploration. First, definitional issues are identified. Second, three paths for clarification are presented: the bereaved's perception of the bond as positive or negative, the quality of the predeath relationship, and the bereaved's afterlife beliefs. Through refining the definition and exploring these potential avenues of research, we hope to clarify the roles that continuing bonds may play in coping with bereavement.

The role of continuing bonds in coping with grief: overview and future directions.

One group of parents singled out more than any other for being at risk for child mal treatment are parents with intellectual disabilities. This chapter summarizes the results of our 15 years of research and clinical practice with these families. We describe (1) the parents, (2) the impact on children raised by parents with intellectual disabilities, and (3) a home-based parent education program designed to increase parenting skills and decrease the risk of child neglect and developmental problems. Most identified parents with intellectual disabilities have IQs between 60 and 80 and have been labeled as having mental retardation. Some are so labeled despite having IQs above 75, the accepted cutoff for a diagnosis of mental retarda tion (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Luckasson et al., 1992). In this chapter, the term “intellectual disabilities” will be used to describe persons with IQs less than 80 who are considered by the social service system to have mental retardation (Mercer, 1973). Parents with intellectual disabilities routinely have their children removed from their care, often without evidence of child maltreatment (Hayman, 1990). Concerns about parenting by persons with intellectual disabilities center more on physical and psychological neglect than physical and sexual abuse. In the United States and Canada, about 80% of these parents have their parenting rights terminated, primarily because of actual or potential child neglect (Feldman, Case, & Sparks, 1992; Feldman, Sparks, & Case, 1993; Seagull & Scheurer, 1986; Taylor et al., 1991).

Parents with Intellectual Disabilities

Predicting the unpredictable? Identifying high-risk versus low-risk parents with intellectual disabilities

Background The study aims to investigate the impact of social support networks of mothers with intellectual disabilities (N = 15) on their psychological well-being and their views of parenting.



Methods  As part of a semi-structured interview, mothers were asked about who helped them in their parenting role and how recent and how helpful this support had been. Adapted psychological questionnaires were presented which measured affect, assertiveness and self-esteem. Mothers were also asked about the benefits, burdens and future expectations of parenthood. It was hypothesized that the larger, more recent and more helpful the support network was reported to be, the better the psychological well-being and the more positive the views on parenthood. Data analysis included quantitative and qualitative methods.



Results  Significant associations were found between the number of reported social contacts and positive affect, the recency of reported social contacts and self-esteem, and the lack of self-esteem and reported burdens of parenting. The average number of social contacts reported was 6.8 persons, with only half of these being described as very helpful. Very few non-family members were part of the support networks. Qualitative analysis of mothers' comments revealed a number of themes regarding helpful and unhelpful support.



Conclusions  These findings confirm the strong associations between supportive social networks, psychological well-being and positive parenting experiences. The results are discussed with reference to previous research, service issues and future research directions.

Social Support Networks and Psychological Well-being of Mothers with Intellectual Disabilities

This study considered the nature of continuing bonds with deceased relatives in a sample of Pakistani Muslims living in the United Kingdom. Ten participants were interviewed following a cultural psychology approach and transcripts were analyzed using grounded theory methodology. Dreaming, talking with others about the deceased, following the deceased's example, keeping memories and mementos, and doing actions thought to help the deceased were forms of continued relationship found. These were intertwined with the process of grieving and were influenced by the family, culture, and religion. Religion was a strong influence on the prominence given by participants to finishing well and on the notion of doing actions thought to help the deceased. Cultural mores, such as the community, and collectivist ethos and the expectation that emotion would be expressed around the time of death, were found to be supportive for some but sources of tension for other participants. Expressing a continuing bond through following the deceased's example so as to make them proud or happy seemed to be reinforced by cultural roots in respect for elders. Participants gave instances of tensions in areas such as expression of emotion and communality versus individualism that arose as a result of their position between two cultural frameworks, some illustrating how assimilation into the host culture set up conflict with the expected norms of their family/ancestral culture. The study highlights how understanding different cultural and religious influences may enrich the concept of continuing bonds.

Influences of Religion and Culture on Continuing Bonds in a Sample of British Muslims of Pakistani Origin

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Social Support Networks and Psychological Well-being of Mothers with Intellectual Disabilities

Influences of Religion and Culture on Continuing Bonds in a Sample of British Muslims of Pakistani Origin