Developments in synoptic climatology in the 1990s included advances in traditional synoptic climatology, empirical downscaling, and dynamical downscaling (i.e. regional climate modelling). The research emphasis in traditional, empirical–statistical approaches to synoptic climatology shifted from methodological development to applications of widely accepted classification techniques, including manual, correlation-based, eigenvector-based, compositing and indexing schemes. In contrast, most efforts in empirical downscaling, which became a well-established field of synoptic climatology during the 1990s, were directed to model development; applications were of secondary concern. Similarly, regional climate models (RCMs) burst onto the scene during the decade and focused on model development, although important progress was made in linking or coupling RCMs to regional or local surface climate systems. This paper discusses prospects for the future of traditional synoptic climatology, empirical downscaling and regional climate modelling. It concludes by looking at the present role of geographic information system (GIS) concepts in synoptic climatology and the potential future role of GIS to the field. Copyright © 2001 Royal Meteorological Society

Developments and prospects in synoptic climatology

Riparian zones are vital components of the landscape. Much attention has been focused on the question of how wide a buffer is needed to protect the original riparian environment. We sampled five streams 2-4 m wide and associated riparian ecosystems before and after clearcutting in western Washington. Buffers ranging from 17 to 72 m wide were left intact at all sites when harvesting. Our objectives were: (1) to characterize pre- harvest microclimatic gradients across riparian ecosystems, from the stream to the upland; (2) to identify effects of harvesting on these gradients; and (3) to describe effects of buffer width and near-stream microclimate on stream microclimate. Six weather stations measuring air temperature, soil temperature, surface air temperature, relative humidity, short-wave solar radiation, and wind speed were installed along transects running across the stream and into the upland, and two reference stations were established, one in an upland clearcut and one in an upland interior forest. Pairwise comparison tests were used to evaluate statistical differences between stations along transects for determination of gradient extent. Pre-harvest riparian gradients existed for all variables except solar radiation and wind speed, and values generally approached forest interior values within 31-62 m from the stream. After harvesting, microclimate values at the buffer edge and each subsequent location toward the upland began to approximate clearcut values instead of forest interior values, indicating an interruption or elimination of the stream-upland gradient. In addition, re- gression analyses showed that stream microclimate was affected to some degree by buffer width and microclimate in the surrounding area. We conclude that a buffer at least 45 m on each side of the stream is necessary to maintain a natural riparian microclimatic en- vironment along the streams in our study, which were characterized by moderate to steep slopes, 70-80% overstory coverage (predominantly Douglas-fir and western hemlock), and a regional climate typified by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. This buffer width estimate is probably low, however, since it assumes that gradients stabilize within 30 m from the stream and that upslope edge effects extend no more than 15 m into the buffer (a low estimate based on other studies). Depending on the variable, required widths may extend up to 300 m, which is significantly greater than standard widths currently in use in the region (i.e., -10-90 m). Our results indicate that even some of the more conservative standard buffer widths may not be adequate for preserving an unaltered microclimate near some streams. Additional site-specific data are needed for different site conditions in order to determine whether generalizations can be made regarding near-stream microclimate.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2641207.pdf

Harvesting effects on microclimatic gradients from small streams to uplands in western washington

TAPES-G: a grid-based terrain analysis program for the environmental sciences

Spline interpolation techniques are used to develop a gridded climate database for China at a resolution of 0.01° in latitude and longitude. A digital elevation model (DEM) was developed at the same resolution to improve the accuracy of interpolation based upon the general spatial dependence of climate on topography. Climate data for the period 1971–2000 from meteorological stations in China were used to develop thin-plate smoothing spline surfaces for monthly mean temperature and precipitation. A regularly gridded climate database was produced by coupling the spline surfaces with the underlying DEM. The summary statistics show interpolation errors for monthly temperatures varying within 0.42–0.83 °C and 8–13% for monthly precipitation. These estimates are superior to results produced by methods commonly used in China. The fine-resolution spatial climate database has many potential applications in natural resource management. For example, it can be used as a baseline for climate change studies, in which potential distributions of flora and fauna can be predicted under the impact of climate change and priority areas for biodiversity conservation can be identified. Copyright  2005 Royal Meteorological Society.

Spatial interpolation of monthly mean climate data for China

The successful revitalisation of the tourism product on the popular Mediterranean tourist destination of Mallorca, Balearic Islands, Spain since 1990, following a period of 'stagnation' in the 1980s, may be jeopardised by emerging environmental pressures, particularly water shortages and climatic change. This paper evaluates the physical and human factors that have contributed to the present water supply problems on Mallorca, with particular reference to the role of tourism in these issues. Various water management initiatives have been introduced during the last decade, although the effectiveness of these schemes for both residents and tourists remains unproven. The water supply issues on Mallorca represent a microcosm of similar problems being experienced in other Mediterranean resorts and beyond. The case is emblematic of how environmental issues are becoming more central to tourism management, as well as suggesting a potentially important variant on the tourism life-cycle model of Butler (1980).

Tourism Development in Mallorca: Is Water Supply a Constraint?

Daily precipitation data from 121 sites for five autumn-winter seasons (September to January, 1982–1983 to 1986–1987) have been analysed to determine discrete precipitation areas within Wales, using S-mode principal components (PCA) and cluster analyses. Using unrotated PCA, much of the variation in daily precipitation is explained by the first five PCs, representing an accumulated variance of 75.7 per cent. The first four PCs appear to relate respectively to: altitude (60.8 per cent of the total variance explained), an exposure effect relative to north or north-east winds (6.0 per cent), a ‘westerly exposure’ effect (4.2 per cent) and an ‘easterly exposure’ effect (2.9 per cent). The fifth PC, with high scores only over Ynys Mǒn and Gwent, could not be attributed to any particular influence. Oblique rotation produced a better simple structure, enhanced the apparent importance of exposure to wind from the main compass directions, but lessened that of altitude. Three methods of clustering PCs were subsequently tried on the Oblimin solution: centroid, median and Ward. The precipitation areas produced by each were broadly similar, and the boundaries between them often coincided with clear topographic units, influenced by exposure and shelter effects. The Ward technique yielded the areas best defined in terms of topography and exposure, and best satisfied criteria determined by the nature of the data themselves.

Autumn and winter daily precipitation areas in Wales, 1982-1983 to 1986-1987

Daily rainfall affinity areas are derived for the island of Mallorca using four years of data, and a 96 × 96 intersite correlation matrix. An initial visual impression of the nature of rainfall organization is afforded by the mapping of correlation links between sites. The Serra de Tramontana form a climatological as well as topographic barrier, producing a marked alignment in spatial rainfall occurrence in that part of the island. Elsewhere ‘core’ sites are identified, about which rainfall correlation is high for distances of up to 15 km. These centre on higher elevation locations in the Serra de Llevant and in the central area, and also the Palma and Campos coastal embayments. Use of rotated principal components and cluster analyses applied to the correlation matrices permits the division of the island into seven major rainfall areas. The uplands of the north-west and east of the island provide clear units in terms of both exposure and altitude, and their general exposure to prevailing rain-bearing winds appears important, whilst an urban effect due to Palma and clear sea-breeze convergence effects near the centre of the island are also implied.

The spatial organization of daily rainfall over Mallorca, Spain

This study is a preliminary attempt to associate the distribution of significant rainfalls over the island of Mallorca with recognized dominant surface circulation types. Based on the extraction of five prominent PCs from a principal components analysis using a T-mode (time) correlation matrix, six dominant daily rainfall spatial patterns have been isolated using cluster analysis for significant rainfall days (area mean ⩾ 5–0 mm) for the island of Mallorca in the western Mediterranean. These six ‘pattern groups’, and a number of important subgroups, are linked closely to the prevailing near-surface circulation. Seven dominant circulation types have been identified, which are closely, although not perfectly, associated with rainfall distribution, so that a conceptual spatial rainfall model for the island seems possible. Such a model would be most useful if used in conjunction with NWP forecasts of probable rainfall amount issued for the area, and would provide valuable local information on likely heavy rainfall occurrence.

The impact of surface circulation on significant daily rainfall patterns over Mallorca

Using storm rainfall data from a dense network of autographic raingauges at Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, storm characteristics (morphology, alignment and time of occurrence) are related to prevailing gradient wind. There is a pronounced seasonal variation in the time of day at which storms generally occur, related to seasonal changes in the larger-scale wind regime between the north-easterly and south-easterly trade winds. Many storms occur at times when there is a convergence between locally-generated land- or sea-breezes and the gradient wind, and their origin along these lines of convergence is further demonstrated by occurrence of both elliptical and linear morphology storms aligned along the coast. The trend of the coast is shown to control the alignment of storms, particularly by day, whereas by night gradient wind is more important. At this time, storms tend to form along the direction of the gradient wind. The most active storms form in the middle of the day, are linear in nature, aligned parallel to the coast, and occur when the gradient wind is either offshore or blows along the coast from the south-south-east.

The impact of wind circulation on the incidence and nature of rainstorms over Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Climate, data and resources: A reference and guide, Edward Linacre, Routledge (London), 1992. No. of pages: 366 + xviii. Price: £50.00 (hb.), ISBN 0‐415‐05702‐7, £16.99 (pb.) ISBN 0‐415‐05703‐5

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