Themajorityofexperimentsinplantbiologyuseplantsgrowninsomekindofcontainerorpot.Weconducteda meta-analysison65studiesthatanalysedtheeffectofpotsizeongrowthandunderlyingvariables.Onaverage,adoublingof the pot size increased biomass production by 43%. Further analysis of pot size effects on the underlying components of growth suggests that reduced growth in smaller pots is caused mainly by a reduction in photosynthesis per unit leaf area, ratherthanbychangesinleafmorphologyorbiomassallocation.Theappropriatepotsizewilllogicallydependonthesizeof theplantsgrowinginthem.Basedonvariouslinesofevidencewesuggestthatanappropriatepotsizeisoneinwhichtheplant biomass does not exceed 1gL -1 . In current research practice ~65% of the experiments exceed that threshold. We suggest thatresearchersneedtocarefullyconsiderthepotsizeintheirexperiments,assmallpotsmaychangeexperimentalresultsand defy the purpose of the experiment. Additional keywords: container volume, experimental setup, meta-analysis, pot size, plant growth, rooting volume. Received 16 February 2012, accepted 11 May 2012, published online 15 June 2012

/pdf/pot-size-matters-a-meta-analysis-of-the-effects-of-rooting-3uaamu2m78.pdf

Pot size matters: a meta-analysis of the effects of rooting volume on plant growth

Slope stability models traditionally use simple indicators of root system structure and strength when vegetation is included as a factor. However, additional root system traits should be considered when managing vegetated slopes to avoid shallow substrate mass movement. Traits including root distribution, length, orientation and diameter are recognized as influencing soil fixation, but do not consider the spatial and temporal dimensions of roots within a system. Thick roots act like soil nails on slopes and the spatial position of these thick roots determines the arrangement of the associated thin roots. Thin roots act in tension during failure on slopes and if they traverse the potential shear zone, provide a major contribution in protecting against landslides. We discuss how root traits change depending on ontogeny and climate, how traits are affected by the local soil environment and the types of plastic responses expressed by the plant. How a landslide engineer can use this information when considering slope stability and management strategies is discussed, along with perspectives for future research. This review encompasses many ideas, data and concepts presented at the Second International Conference ‘Ground Bio- and Eco-engineering: The Use of Vegetation to Improve Slope Stability—ICGBE2’ held at Beijing, China, 14–18 July 2008. Several papers from this conference are published in this edition of Plant and Soil.

Desirable plant root traits for protecting natural and engineered slopes against landslides

Root tensile strength is an important factor to consider when choosing suitable species for reinforcing soil on unstable slopes. Tensile strength has been found to increase with decreasing root diameter, however, it is not known how this phenomenon occurs. We carried out tensile tests on roots 0.2–12.0 mm in diameter of three conifer and two broadleaf species, in order to determine the relationship between tensile strength and diameter. Two species, Pinus pinaster Ait. and Castanea sativa Mill., were then chosen for a quantitative analysis of root cellulose content. Cellulose is responsible for tensile strength in wood due to its microfibrillar structure. Results showed that in all species, a significant power relationship existed between tensile strength and root diameter, with a sharp increase of tensile strength in roots with a diameter 1.0 mm, Fagus sylvatica L. was the most resistant to failure, followed by Picea abies L. and C. sativa., P. pinaster and Pinus nigra Arnold roots were the least resistant in tension for the same diameter class. Extremely high values of strength (132–201 MPa) were found in P. abies, C. sativa and P. pinaster, for the smallest roots (0.4 mm in diameter). The power relationship between tensile strength and root diameter cannot only be explained by a scaling effect typical of that found in fracture mechanics. Therefore, this relationship could be due to changes in cellulose content as the percentage of cellulose was also observed to increase with decreasing root diameter and increasing tensile strength in both P. pinaster and C. sativa.

The influence of cellulose content on tensile strength in tree roots

Root reinforcement in plantations of Cryptomeria japonica D. Don: effect of tree age and stand structure on slope stability

Why fine tree roots are stronger than thicker roots: The role of cellulose and lignin in relation to slope stability

Root system deformation was studied in 23 Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L) stands in central Sweden The study comprised both plantations created with container-grown plants (Paperpot) and natural stands including young (7–9 year old) and older (19–24 year old) trees Trees were measured with regards to distribution of roots, root deformation, stability, stem straightness and wood properties in stumps Root distribution was most uniform for naturally regenerated trees Older trees generally showed a better root distribution than young trees The young planted trees displayed a high frequency of severely spiralled root systems, while only a few of the older trees had spiralled root systems No severe root deformations were observed on naturally regenerated trees Naturally regenerated trees were more stable than those which had been planted Differences in bending moment, when trees were pulled to an angle of 10°, were considerable between young planted and naturally regenerated trees, but less pronounced for the older trees Young planted trees had the highest frequency of severely crooked stem bases, while naturally regenerated trees had the straightest mode of growth Tensile strength in peripheral wood samples of the stumps was substantially lower for planted than for naturally regenerated trees Strain values to breakage of wood samples, taken from the root collar and the central- and peripheral part of the stump were lower for planted trees The conclusions from this study are that root distribution, tree stability and stem straightness of planted Paperpot-grown trees will improve after a certain time and approach the state of naturally regenerated trees As trees grow older, early established crooked stem bases will be compensated by radial growth and the tree will appear straighter Inside the stem, however, problems may still remain with abnormal fibre direction and compression wood together with inferior root strength due to fibre disturbances as a result of spiralled roots

Root deformation in plantations of container-grown Scots pine trees : effects on root growth, tree stability and stem straightness

Root structure and basal sweep were measured on 6-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) trees at two sites with different soil fertility. Each site was planted with seedlings of identical origin after nursery cultivation in either solidwall container types with vertical ribs or in slitwall container types. Neither container design nor container volume affected tree height or stem diameter on the two sites. The transversal area of lateral roots was larger than the transversal area of bottom roots for the two container types at both sites. The proportion of bottom root transversal area to the total root transversal area was larger in the seedlings growing on the low fertility site than in those growing in the high fertility site for both container types. Seedlings cultivated in slitwall containers had a larger root area in proportion to stem diameter and had less root spiralling compared to the trees cultivated in solidwall containers. At the high fertility site, trees from the slitwall container type had straighter stem bases than seedlings grown in solidwall containers. At the low fertility site, differences in basal sweep formation were small between the container types. Reasons for this are discussed.

Slits in Container Wall Improve Root Structure and Stem Straightness of Outplanted Scots Pine Seedlings

The effect of compression wood, spiral grain and grain angle on deformations of studs from 22-yr-old Scots pine trees was studied. Spiral grain angle was measured on the mantle surface of logs and grain angle on the tangential faces of studs. Bow, spring and twist were measured on studs at green condition and at 18% and 12% moisture content. From each stud four 3 mm thick cross-sections were sawn. The compression wood content and its position within cross-sections were analysed using image analysis. For the short sections, located between cross-sections, bow and spring, but not twist, were significantly correlated with the amount and the position of the compression wood content. Twist was significantly correlated with spiral grain angle and grain angle. In conclusion, this study suggests that the compression wood content and its position within cross-sections have an effect on deformations such as bow and spring. It is however, evident that the spiral grain angle and the grain angle have a major effect on...

Effect of compression wood and grain angle on deformations of studs from 22-year-old scots pine trees

Stem straightness and compression wood in 22-year-old container-grown Scots pine trees

The distribution of compression wood in relation to eccentric growth and development of stem straightness was studied in a 22-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L) stand in central Sweden that was established with container-grown seedlings Stem straightness was measured on the same 440 trees in 1986 and 1997 The number of stems with straight base sections increased from 60% in 1986 to 89% in 1997 Measurements of 72 sample trees in 2001 showed that 96% of the trees had developed straight stem bases External geometry data of the logs was obtained with a Rema 3D log scanner A sub-sample of 16 trees was randomly selected for analysis of compression wood distribution and eccentricity measurements From each tree, 11 discs were cut at every 60 cm along the stem All discs, except one, contained compression wood Compression wood and pith eccentricity was most pronounced near the stem base but not significantly correlated to basal sweep Severe compression wood content was correlated to pith eccentricity and bow height In general, correlations were better for the basal sections of the logs Even though most trees were straight, they contained large amounts of compression wood It is evident that eccentric growth and compression wood formation play major roles in the development of stem straightness In several stems, a spiral compression wood distribution pattern was found Reasons for this are discussed

Stem Straightness and Compression Wood in a 22-Year-Old Stand of Container-Grown Scots Pine Trees

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