Many surveys with differently sized rainfall simulators have been conducted in the past to study runoff and erosion processes on the plot scale. Concerning the understanding of runoff processes on the slope scale, comparative studies have shown that sprinkling devices with large plot sizes (≥ 40 m 2 ) produce more representative results than small-plot rainfall simulators (4 m 2 and less). Nevertheless, the latter ones are frequently used due to their portability and the reduced effort and water demand compared to large-plot simulations. In this study the results of torrential rain (100 mm h − 1 ) experiments using a small (1 m 2 ) dripper device and a large (40–80 m 2 ) spray device are compared regarding to identify site characteristics which allow estimating the representativeness of surface runoff coefficients measured with a small-plot rainfall simulator. We conducted 39 small-plot (1 m 2 ) and 14 large-plot (40–80 m 2 ) rainfall simulations at eight selected experimental sites in the Eastern Alps with differing land cover, land use, intensity of grazing and antecedent soil moisture content. At sites with intensive grazing, due to topsoil compaction and the shortened flow path, the small-plot device delivered significantly higher runoff coefficients than the large-plot device. At mainly mowed grassland sites with at most a short grazing period in autumn both sprinkling devices showed similar results or even lower runoff coefficients compared with the results of the large-plot simulator. The measured surface runoff coefficients strongly depended on antecedent soil moisture content and grazing intensity.

Comparison of the results of a small-plot and a large-plot rainfall simulator – Effects of land use and land cover on surface runoff in Alpine catchments

Accurate knowledge of the spatiotemporal behavior of soil moisture (SM) can greatly improve hydrological forecasting capability. While ground-based SM measurements exhibit greater accuracy, they tend to be sparse in space and available for limited periods. To overcome this, a viable alternative is space-borne microwave remote sensing because of the near real-time observational capability at the global scale. However, its direct applications have been limited because of the uncertainty associated and the coarse spatial resolution the products are available at. Considering its usefulness and limitations, this paper is intended to provide an extensive review of satellite-derived SM and its applications for assessing flood risk in sparsely gauged or ungauged catchments worldwide. Therefore, we aim to identify and discuss research gaps, and finally propose future research directions for improvement and hydrological applications of these SM products. The paper starts with a brief introduction to satellite-derived SM products and consists of three interdependent focal areas: evaluation, improvement, and application of the satellite SM for flood risk alleviation.

A Review of Satellite-Derived Soil Moisture and Its Usage for Flood Estimation

Grassland ecosystems provide the basis for grassland farming where climate and topography constrain the cultivation of crops Current agricultural systems and their nutrient cycles are out of balance, due to the segregation of feed provision and consumption However, knowledge on interlinkages between feed supply and demand is scarce and remains unclear on the transnational level Here we show that the ecosystem service (ES) biomass production from grassland (BP), based on supply, flow and demand, varies spatially in the Alpine space and that climate change is contributing to the amplification of BP surpluses or deficits We detected hotspots of BP flow and demand resulting in a negative energy balance: in the strongholds of animal husbandry, the demand exceeded the flow by up to 2,320 GJ ME ha−1 We found strong regional distinctions concerning climate change: Southern Alps will experience loss in BP provision, whereas low-elevation pre-Alps are predisposed to an increase of BP provision under moderate climate change Livestock systems in mountains depend on grassland BP flows We therefore recommend that our findings are integrated in a climate change adapted grassland management, which is crucial on the transnational level for the restoration and maintenance of regional nutrient cycles and BP provision

Grassland biomass balance in the European Alps: current and future ecosystem service perspectives

Drought- and heat-induced shifts in vegetation composition impact biomass production and water use of alpine grasslands

Effects of dynamic land use inputs on improvement of SWAT model performance and uncertainty analysis of outputs

Pre-rain-event soil moisture (preSM) plays a crucial role when evaluating runoff formation during heavy rainfall. Using sprinkling experiments and numerical modeling, this study investigates the impact of preSM on runoff formation at the small hillslope scale (≤100  m2). Sprinkling experiments were conducted on three sites in the Austrian Alps and observed hydrological behavior was simulated by using the hillslope model HILLFLOW. For each site, runoff was modeled with different preSM scenarios, covering the whole soil moisture range between permanent wilting point and saturation. Depending on the dominant runoff processes, the results showed impacts of preSM on both the maximum runoff and the total runoff. A predominant threshold was observed near field capacity (35 and 32% by volume). In general, the results clearly showed that the consideration of preSM is a prerequisite to reproduce runoff formation and total runoff amounts accurately. Field capacity turned out to be a good indicator (threshold...

Quantification of Soil Moisture Effects on Runoff Formation at the Hillslope Scale

Simulating heavy rain events to analyze potential surface runoff and related soil erosion is a well-established approach in alpine ecology and hydrology. In steep and inaccessible terrain with highly variable relief and vegetation, as occurs in mountainous regions, the rain simulators used to date are often not adapted to the abovementioned characteristics. This study reviews heavy rainfall simulators and presents a consequentially developed rain simulator that covers an area of 10 m 2 . The results of simulated heavy rainfall events (100 mm h − 1 ) demonstrated the sprinkling equipment used here to be a useful tool, delivering robust results when studying surface runoff at small scales in a heterogeneous terrain. A comparison to rainfall simulation on a 50 m 2 plot revealed no significant differences, which demonstrates the equipment used at the scale of 10 m 2 to be above a “minimum area” for rainfall simulation. Finally, the impacts of plot size on runoff behavior are discussed to provide useful information using a rainfall simulator in the field. The presented rainfall simulator turned out to be a valuable tool for obtaining more detailed information on the surface runoff of small patterned landscapes (i.e., in both natural and managed grass and dwarf-shrublands) by delivering results comparable to those of larger-scale rain simulators (covering 50 or 100 m 2 ).

Rain simulation in patchy landscapes: Insights from a case study in the Central Alps

Advective long-duration rain events play an important role in the development of floods. A realistic depiction of interflow processes is not possible with the most customary precipitation/runoff (P/R) models. To increase knowledge about interflow processes in long-term rainfall events and improve the data situation for hydrological modelling, field experiments were performed in five Austrian catchments. These catchments differ from one another in precipitation characteristics, land cover, land use, pedological and geological situation. Long-term irrigation experiments on large plots combined with the insertion of a salt tracer (LiCl or NaCl) on smaller plots and geoelectrical measurements were used to assess the water movement in the soil and underlying substrate. This study has made significant contributions to (i) improving the design of measuring interflow on the plot and the hillslope-scale, (ii) improving the knowledge of bandwidths of shallow interflow velocities for typical substrates in the Eastern Alps and (iii) facilitating the regionalisation of data acquired at the local level, to the catchment or the regional scale.

Assessment of Shallow Interflow Velocities in Alpine Catchments for the Improvement of Hydrological Modelling

This chapter highlights the influence of mountain forests on runoff patterns in alpine catchments. We discuss the forest impact at different spatial scales and bridge to the requirements for an integrated natural hazard risk management, which considers forest as an efficient protection measure against floods and other water-related natural hazards. We present results from a wide range of research studies from Austria, which all reveal the runoff-reducing effect of forest vegetation in small and medium-size catchments (< 100 km). Forests also contribute to runoff reduction in heavy rainfall events in macro-scale catchments (> 100 km), e.g., by reducing surface runoff and delaying interflow, but above all by stabilising slopes and therefore reducing bedload transport during major runoff events. To avoid that forests become a hazard due to enhanced driftwood release, managing of steep riparian slopes for a permanent forest cover (“Dauerbestockung”) is a basic prerequisite. Often protective effects of forests are impaired by man-made impacts like dense forest road networks, insensitive use (e.g., false design of skid roads, compacting machinery, forest operations during adverse weather on wet and saturated soils), and delayed or omitted reforestation and regeneration. Flood risk management in mountain regions should include Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction measures, with particular emphasis on sustainable and climate change-adapted management of protective forests. This will require integral and catchment-based approaches such as comprehensive management concepts coordinated with spatial planning, and verifiable, practicable and correspondingly adapted legal guidelines as well as appropriate funding of protective forest research to close the existing knowledge gaps.

Flood Protection by Forests in Alpine Watersheds: Lessons Learned from Austrian Case Studies

Simulation of torrential rain as a means for assessment of surface runoff coefficients and calculation of recurrent design events in alpine catchments

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