Researchers in the field of virtual environments VE, or virtual reality, surround a participant with synthetic stimuli, The flight simulator community, primarily in the U.S. military, has a great deal of experience with aircraft simulations, and VE researchers should be aware of the major results in this field. In this survey of the literature, we have especially focused on military literature that may be hard for traditional academics to locate via the standard journals. One of the authors of this paper is a military helicopter pilot himself, which was quite useful in obtaining access to many of our references. We concentrate on research that produces specific, measured results that apply to VE research. We assume no background other than basic knowledge of computer graphics, and explain simulator terms and concepts as necessary. This paper ends with an annotated bibliography of some harder to find research results in the field of flight simulators:


â¢ The effects of display parameters, including field-of-view and scene complexity;
â¢ The effect of lag in system response;
â¢ The effect of refresh rate in graphics update;
â¢ The existing theories on causes of simulator sickness; and
â¢ The after-effects of simulator use



Many of the results we cite are contradictory. Our global observation is that with flight simulator research, like most human-computer interaction research, there are very few “correct” answers. Almost always, the answer to a specific question depends on the task the user was attempting to perform with the simulator.

A literature survey for virtual environments: Military flight simulator visual systems and simulator sickness

Self-movement of an organism through the environment is guided jointly by information provided by the vestibular system and by visual pathways that are specialized for detecting ‘optic flow’1,2 Motion of any object through space, including the self-motion of organisms, can be described with reference to six degrees of freedom: rotation about three orthogonal axes, and translation along these axes Here we describe neurons in the pigeon brain that respond best to optic flow resulting from translation along one of the three orthogonal axes We show that these translational optic flow neurons, like rotational optic flow neurons3,4,5, share a common spatial frame of reference with the semicircular canals of the vestibular system The three axes to which these neurons respond best are the vertical axis and two horizontal axes orientated at 45° to either side of the body midline

Common reference frame for neural coding of translational and rotational optic flow

This research demonstrates that experiences associated with early self-produced locomotion facilitate a developmental shift in the visual control of posture. Results showed greater use of optic flow for postural control (as measured in a moving room) after self-produced locomotor experience. Infants with endogenous (creeping) or artificial (walker) self-produced locomotor experience responded to portions of the optic flow field, whereas prelocomotor infants did not. Taken together, these findings suggest that self-produced locomotion facilitates differential use of smaller portions of the optic flow field. Findings will be discussed in terms of how perceptual experiences associated with moving the selfin space bring about important changes in visual proprioception.

Effect of self-produced locomotion on infant postural compensation to optic flow.

Unintentional modulations of human gait by optical flow.

This experiment studied the effect of imposed optic flow on human locomotion. Six young and 6 older adults were exposed to various patterns of optic flow while walking in a moving hallway. Results showed few cases of impaired postural control (staggers, parachute reactions). No falls were recorded. Kinematic patterns of gait were altered when vision was absent or inconsistent optic flow was presented: Ninety two percent of the subjects' mean step velocity differed from their step velocities under normal vision. Compared with imposed central flow, peripheral optic flow was not dominant in inducing kinematic changes. Characteristic gait profiles were obtained, depending on flow direction. Global backward flow tended to slow down step velocity, whereas subjects' step velocity increased during conditions of forward flow. The results suggest that subjects attempted to match their own walking speed to the velocity of the moving visual scenes. It is concluded that in an uncluttered environment, imposed optic flow has a modulating rather than a destabilizing effect on human locomotion.

Effects of optic flow on the kinematics of human gait: a comparison of young and older adults.

Perception of self-motion: Psychophysical and computational approaches.

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Perception of self-motion: Psychophysical and computational approaches.