Polymer additives and surfactants as drag reduction agents have been widely used in the field of fluid drag reduction. Polymer additives can reduce drag effectively with only a small amount, but they degrade easily. Surfactants have an anti-degradation ability. This paper categorizes the mechanism of drag reducing agents and the influencing factors of drag reduction characteristics. The factors affecting the degradation of polymer additives and the anti-degradation properties of surfactants are discussed. A mixture of polymer additive and surfactant has the characteristics of high shear resistance, a lower critical micelle concentration (CMC), and a good drag reduction effect at higher Reynolds numbers. Therefore, this paper focuses more on a drag reducing agent mixed with a polymer and a surfactant, including the mechanism model, drag reduction characteristics, and anti-degradation ability.

Research Progress on the Collaborative Drag Reduction Effect of Polymers and Surfactants.

The dramatic increase of viscosity is a fundamental problem when designing a polymerization process. Since a thorough understanding of rheokinetics-the study of the coupled rheological changes and chemical kinetics in the reaction mixtureespecially at high degrees of conversion, is still missing, industrial polymerization processes are often designed on basis of trial and error procedures and operate in far-fi-om-optimal conditions. Even at laboratory scale the measurement of the viscosity of systems rapidly changing with time is troublesome and predicting quantitatively the increase of viscosity is not an easy task. The non-Newtonian character of polymeric systems makes rheokinetics an even more challenging field, and more interesting as well, In this review article the difficulties encountered by the research community, the results obtained so far and the problems still to be faced are discussed.

https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/3621243/2002PolymEngSciCioffi.pdf

Rheokinetics of linear polymerization. A literature review

Investigations on the slug two-phase flow in horizontal pipes: Past, presents, and future directives

After successful implementation for more than 6 decades by the oil and gas industry, hydraulic fracturing remains the pioneer well stimulation method to date. Polymers are one of the additives in fracturing fluids that play a significant role. Polymers are used as friction reducers and viscosifiers to provide a transport medium for proppants in fracturing fluids. There are many polymer-based fracturing fluid systems, but choosing the most appropriate type and system depends on the type of application and a wide range of parameters. Currently, there is no complete review study that gives a reference and hence a perspective for researchers on the use of polymers in hydraulic fracturing. This paper summarizes the published literature on polymers used in fracturing fluids and discusses the current research issues, efforts, and trends in the field, aiming to provide an overview of the polymer applications in slick-water and cross-linked gel systems. The mechanism and limitation of polymer use such as polymer degradation, fracture conductivity reduction, and polymer adsorption are also reviewed in this paper. The reviewed literature suggested that polymers are important additives in fracturing fluids not only to provide adequate transportation of proppants but also to determine the width of the fracture whereby higher viscosities yield wider fractures. The development of synthetic polymers and associative polymers in fracturing fluids showed a remarkable potential to improve the stability of fracturing fluids in unconventional reservoirs under reservoir conditions, which makes it an interesting topic for future studies.

https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/acsomega.1c06739

Perspective Review of Polymers as Additives in Water-Based Fracturing Fluids

Effect of salt on turbulent drag reduction of xanthan gum

Drag reduction in transportation of hydrocarbon liquids: From fundamentals to engineering applications

Physical and/or chemical transformations in polymer systems can be studied by different analytical methods. However, most of them are applicable to systems of rather high concentration of polymer, or that takes long periods to prepare samples. In this paper, the Toms effect (drag reduction (DR) in adding very small amounts of a polymer to a solvent if flow takes part in a turbulent regime) is proposed as a method suitable for monitoring chemical reactions of polymers in very dilute solutions (down to tens of ppm). Then, by measuring the Toms effect, there is the possibility of observing slight changes occurring in the course of a reaction taking part in a dilute solution. This publication deals with two typical polymer–polymer transformations — the formation of stereocomplexes between iso- and syndio-tactic poly(methyl methacrylate)s (PMMAs), as an example of physical transition, and denaturating of DNA, as an important chemical reaction.

A method for monitoring polymer reactions in very dilute solutions

Traditionally, the Toms effect was widely used in its direct application for drag reduction in channel flow or for the movement of solids through a liquid medium. In this paper, however, we have considered a possibility for using this effect as a method allowing one to monitor the very beginning of the polymerization process. Our approach was based on the high sensitivity of the Toms effect to minor changes in polymer concentration in a low-molecular-weight solvent. We have centered our discussion on chemical reactions that occurred in very dilute solutions. As a typical example, we have examined ionic polymerization of hexene. Application of the Toms effect gave us a unique chance to investigate chemical processes happening when the polymer concentration is on the order of tens of ppm. This concentration range was much lower that the ranges studied by traditional chemical or physical methods.

Using the Toms effect for rheokinetic study of the initial stage of polymerization

According to the Toms effect, the hydrodynamic resistance to the flow of a low-molecular-mass fluid (water, solvents, low-viscosity oil products) in the region of Reynolds numbers usually corresponding to a turbulent flow significantly decreases upon introduction of a very small amount (a few tens ppm) of a polymeric additive. This effect of drag reduction was used in the mechanics of fluids but never employed for investigation of the kinetics of chemical reactions. In this paper, various possibilities of using the Toms effect for monitoring the course of reactions involving macromolecules are considered. The main feature of these rheokinetic investigations is that the reactions are proceeding in highly diluted solutions. In particular, the initial stages of polymerization and polymer-polymer interactions are studied in ultimately diluted solutions with a polymer concentration from a few to several tens ppm (i.e., on a level markedly lower than the sensitivity limit of conventional physicochemical methods). Several model examples are considered, including the polymerization of hexene and acrylamide, the formation of stereocomplexes involving various stereoregular PMMA forms, and the denaturation of DNA.

A new method of rheokinetic investigations based on the Toms effect

It is proposed to employ the lowering of hydrodynamic friction (evaluated from the increased flowrate of polymer solution in comparison with that of pure solvent) for monitoring the rate of polymerization. The amount of polymer present in solution at a given time is determined from the known dependence of the flowrate on polymer concentration.

Polymerization kinetics followed by means of the toms effect

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