Males and females of nearly all animals differ in their body size, a phenomenon called sexual size dimorphism (SSD). The degree and direction of SSD vary considerably among taxa, including among populations within species. A considerable amount of this variation is due to sex differences in body size plasticity. We examine how variation in these sex differences is generated by exploring sex differences in plasticity in growth rate and development time and the physiological regulation of these differences (e.g., sex differences in regulation by the endocrine system). We explore adaptive hypotheses proposed to explain sex differences in plasticity, including those that predict that plasticity will be lowest for traits under strong selection (adaptive canalization) or greatest for traits under strong directional selection (condition dependence), but few studies have tested these hypotheses. Studies that combine proximate and ultimate mechanisms offer great promise for understanding variation in SSD and sex differences in body size plasticity in insects.

/pdf/sex-differences-in-phenotypic-plasticity-affect-variation-in-45cjtz86dd.pdf

Sex differences in phenotypic plasticity affect variation in sexual size dimorphism in insects: from physiology to evolution.

Semiochemical-based pest management programs comprise three major approaches that are being used to provide environmentally friendly control methods of insect pests: mass trapping, "lure and kill," and mating disruption. In this article, we review the potential of mass trapping in long-term pest management as well as in the eradication of invasive species. We discuss similarities and differences between mass trapping and other two main approaches of semiochemical-based pest management programs. We highlight several study cases where mass trapping has been used either in long-term pest management (e.g., codling moth,Cydiapomonella (L.); pink bollworm,Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders); bark beetles, palm weevils, corn rootworms (Diabrotica spp.); and fruit sies) or in eradication of invasive species (e.g., gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.); and boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis grandis Boheman). We list the critical issues that affect the efÞcacy of mass trapping and compare these with previously published models developed to investigate mass trapping efÞcacy in pest control. We conclude that mass trapping has good potential to suppress or eradicate low-density, isolated pest populations; however, its full potential in pest management has not been adequately realized and therefore encourages further research and development of this technology.

/pdf/potential-of-mass-trapping-for-long-term-pest-management-and-4en1nmnzpp.pdf

Potential of Mass Trapping for Long-Term Pest Management and Eradication of Invasive Species

Olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae), is the major pest of commercial olives worldwide. Various aspects of its biology, ecology, management, and impact on olive production are highlighted. With the discovery of insecticidal resistance in some populations frequently treated with organophosphates, old and new control options are being investigated. The potential of biological control is examined. Surveys suggest that a small group of braconids in the Opiinae subfamily best represent the primary parasitoids attacking olive fruit fly in its native range. These species include Psyttalia lounsburyi, P. dacicida, P. concolor, P. ponerophaga, and Utetes africanus. Bracon celer, another braconid but in the Braconinae subfamily, is also reared from the fruit fly in its native range. The potential of these and other natural enemies is discussed with respect to olive fruit fly biology, commercial olive production, and biological constraints that may limit their success. We suggest that numerous species exist that should be further investigated as control agents for olive fruit fly in the many climatic regimes where the pest is found.

Olive Fruit Fly: Managing an Ancient Pest in Modern Times

Both sex pheromones and male lures appear to play an important role in the mating systems of many species of economically important tephritid species. Typically, stationary males emit pheromone attractive to searching females, and recent evidence indicates that naturally occurring male lures may function as precursors in pheromone synthesis. Here, we review (i) the basic biology of sex pheromones and the importance of naturally occurring male lures as pheromone components or precursors and (ii) the use of sex pheromones and male lures as trap baits, primarily in fruit fly detection programs, for the major genera of Anastrepha, Bactrocera, Ceratitis, Dacus, Rhagoletis, and Toxotrypana. Relatively few studies have examined the effectiveness of pheromone-based trapping, and most of these have involved only three species, the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), the Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens (Loew), and the Caribbean fruit fly, A. suspensa (Loew). In general, the results have been inconsistent, with traps baited with live males or male pheromone extracts or components attracting more females than blanks or food-baited traps in some studies but not in others. This inconsistency, along with the chemical complexity of pheromones and the multimodal nature of sexual communication (where olfaction is but one of several sensory channels used in male signaling and courtship), has limited research on the development of pheromone baits. Male lures, on the other hand, have proven incredibly useful and consistently effective trap baits. The major male lures – methyl eugenol, cue-lure/raspberry ketone, and trimedlure – are discussed as are possible replacements/modifications, such as fluorinated analogues of methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone formate, zingerone, ceralure, and enriched ginger root oil. In addition, we discuss various factors influencing the efficacy of male lures, including fly age, prior lure ingestion, selection for non-responsiveness, interspecific differences in responsiveness, and the use of liquid versus solid dispensers.

https://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9789401791922-c2.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-1489583-p176778010

Pheromones, Male Lures, and Trapping of Tephritid Fruit Flies

The use of semiochemicals, both sex pheromones and food attractants, in monitoring the olive fly, Bactrocera oleae, has become well established in most olive-growing countries of the Mediterranean basin. There is an ever-increasing degree of sophistication that is being introduced in the way trap catch data are collected and interpreted, making for a substantially more rational use of conventional insecticides. The introduction of semiochemical-based products as control methods in IPM packages for B.oleae has been very successfully accomplished on a pilot scale in a number of olive growing countries. These pilot scale trials are now being extended into area-wide programmes in Spain, Italy and Greece and will, in due course, be extended to the whole of the Mediterranean basin.

http://phero.net/iobc/samos/bulletin/jones.pdf

Alternative methods for controlling the olive fly, Bactrocera oleae, involving semiochemicals.

Volatile substances collected by various methods from laboratory and wild female Dacus oleae (Gmelin) flies attracted males of the same species during the hours of sexual activity (dusk) in laboratory and field tests. The presence of an air-borne sex pheromone in this species, previously suspected, was thus verified. Laboratory and field cage tests showed pheromonal communication between laboratory-reared and wild insects.



ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

EIN SEXATTRAKTANT DER OLIVENFLIEGE, DACUS OLEAE, UND SEINE BIOLOGISCHE AKTIVITAT UNTER LABOR-UND FELDBEDINGUNGEN



Fluchtige Substanzen von Laborzucht- und wilden Weibchen von Dacus oleae (Gmelin) wurden mit verschiedenen Methoden gewonnen; sie lockten Mannchen derselben Art wahrend der Stunden ihrer sexuellen Aktivitat (Abenddammerung) in Labor- und Feldversuchen an. Die Existenz eines fluchtigen Sexualpheromons bei dieser Art, bisher nur vermutet, wurde somit bewiesen. Labor- und Feldkafigversuche zeigten eine Pheromon-Kommunikation zwischen Laborzucht- und wilden Insekten.

A sex attractant of the olive fruit fly, dacus oleae and its biological activity under laboratory and field conditions

In the framework of an ongoing testing and refining process of a mass trapping method, using a combination of semiochemicals, for the control of the olive fruit fly, Bactrocera (Dacus) oleae, four trap designs, three trap colors, six different food attractants and two pheromone formulations were compared under field conditions. No differences were observed between the trap designs and the food attractants tested. Trap color had a significant effect in preference tests only. Traps combining food attractants and pheromones attracted higher numbers of both male and female flies but the differences became statistically significant only in cases of low trap densities. Pheromones enclosed in cyclodextrenes were not as attractive as standard pheromone formulations. The findings of these tests allow a choice among trap types and semiochemicals for cost reduction and convenience, but not for enhancement of the efficacy of the method.

Comparative field studies of various traps and attractants of the olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae

The effect of some chemical and physico-tactile characters of the olive fruit surface were studied with respect to oviposition regulation of wild and laboratory-cultured olive fruit flies, Dacus oleae (Gmelin). It was found that chemical stimuli have the greatest effect. Up to 100% inhibiton of oviposition can be obtained with unsuitable chemical properties of the fruit surface. These chemical stimuli are perceived by antennal and tarsal receptors. Fruit surface smoothness also has a significant regulatory effect. This character is perceived by antennal receptors only. Hardness of fruit has no effect at all.



RESUME

REGULATION DE LA PONTE PAR LES CARACTERISTIQUES DIVERSES DES OLIVES CHEZ DACUS OLEAE (GMELIN)



On a etudie l'effet d'un certain nombre de caracteristiques chimiques et physico-tactiles de la surface des olives sur la regulation de la ponte de populations naturelles et de laboratoire de la mouche des olives, Dacus oleae. On a constate que c'etaient les stimuli chimiques qui avaient l'effet le plus important. On peut obtenir une inhibition de la ponte allant jusqu'a 100% si la surface du fruit a des proprietes chimiques defavorables. Ces stimuli chimiques sont percus par des recepteurs antennaires et tarsaux. Le degre de rugosite de la surface a aussi un effet regulateur important. Ce caractere est percu uniquement par des recepteurs antennaires. La durete du fruit n'a aucun effet.

Oviposition regulation in dacus oleae by various olive fruit characters

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A sex attractant of the olive fruit fly, dacus oleae and its biological activity under laboratory and field conditions

Comparative field studies of various traps and attractants of the olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae

Oviposition regulation in dacus oleae by various olive fruit characters