Microprocessor-based relays protecting against fault current have revolutionized power automation industry. The leverage using commercially available information communication technologies has been the currency for future cyberinfrastructure deployment, which enables plausible electronic manipulation that can affect system operation. The bus differential protection has been recognized as one of the most critical protection schemes, if compromised, that would disconnect a large number of components within a substation. A hypothesized substation outage is the worst case scenario of intrusion attack events. This paper proposes an impact analysis of critical cyber assets in substations that capture historical load and topology conditions. This is to identify critical substations and other “nightmare” hypothesized combinations for security protection planning. The proposed metrics of attack scenarios incorporate electronic instrumentation in relation to the physical system for impact and dependency evaluation. Combinatorial verification of these hypothesized events based on the proposed reverse pyramid model (RPM) is validated using IEEE 30- and 118-bus systems.

Cyber-Based Contingency Analysis

Differential protection is the main protective scheme of busbar in power systems but its operation degrades during current transformer (CT) saturation conditions. In this study, the busbar differential protection scheme is improved by the addition of a new feature extracted from differential current using S-transform analysis. S-transform as a powerful signal processing technique gives a complete visualisation of the signal in both time and frequency domains. The new extracted feature as well as the magnitude of the differential and restraint currents are utilised to increase the security of traditional busbar differential protection scheme. With the addition of this new feature, distinctive regions are created in the feature space which can be separated by an appropriate classifier. In this study, the well-known classifier, i.e. support vector machine is employed to effectively discriminate internal faults from external faults. To evaluate the performance of the proposed method, a part of Iranian 400-kV power system grid is simulated in the PSCAD/EMTDC environment. The transient behaviour of CTs during saturation conditions is simulated based on the precise Jiles–Atherton model. The obtained results justify the superiority of the proposed method in terms of speed and security even in noisy conditions.

https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1049/iet-gtd.2016.1686

Intelligent busbar protection scheme based on combination of support vector machine and S-transform

Derivative-based approaches have been used both in the literature and in the industry to identify fault current distortions caused by current transformer (CT) saturation. This study presents a new simple, but efficient, derivative-based technique to detect CT saturation. First a difference function for the samples on the two sides of the current local extremum is defined. Based on the values of this difference function for various current samples, a variance function is defined. By comparing this variance function with a pair of pre-set thresholds, CT saturation can be determined. This technique is not affected by CT parameters such as CT burden, core remanence or magnetisation curve. The independence of this method from the fault current characteristics, such as decaying DC time constant, noise and so on, is investigated. Numerous simulations were carried out using PSCAD/EMTDC program. The performance of this algorithm for simulated fault currents together with a set of experimental results verify the accurate operation of the proposed method for different conditions including mild and fast CT saturations.

Development of a new derivative-based algorithm to detect current transformer saturation

Distance relay zone reach setting demands for the knowledge of transient and steady-state error to ensure secure operation. This study addresses the estimation of steady-state error which will be encountered by conventional distance relay protecting series-compensated parallel transmission lines (SCPTLs). Different factors like, remote-end in-feed, varying levels of series compensation and fault resistance are taken into consideration to arrive at generalised expressions for transposed SCPTL. These expressions can be used to estimate steady-state error in positive sequence impedance estimation which will be encountered by healthy and faulty line relays, both with and without mutual compensation. Comprehensive analysis is done using two different tower configurations for each of the above-mentioned factors, both with and without mutual compensation to analyse healthy and faulty line relay behaviour.

https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1049/iet-gtd.2013.0879

Steady-state error estimation in distance relay for single phase to ground fault in series-compensated parallel transmission lines

The evolution of protective relays, from electromechanical to digital devices, has enhanced the system-wide monitoring and control. In most substation configuration, intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) of bus differential relays remain one of the most vital protection schemes to prevent equipment from overloading damage. The proposed study is to systematically identify the critical substation/IED hypothesized attack scenarios by eliminating large number of insignificant cases in an online environment. A statistical model combined with real-time simulation is proposed to identify the critical combinations of substation outages. The metrics include (1) substation risk index, (2) dependency of substation combinations, and (3) criticality of time windows which are validated using IEEE 30-bus system in this study. The results of combinatorial search based on a substation list are compared using depth first search (DFS), breadth first search (BFS), and random selection.

Impact quantification of hypothesized attack scenarios on bus differential relays

This paper summarizes the IEEE C37.234-2009 Guide for Protective Relay Applications to Power System Buses. In the Guide, concepts of power bus protection are discussed. Consideration is given to availability and location of breakers, current transformers, and disconnectors as well as bus switching scenarios, and their impact on the selection and application of bus protection. A number of bus protection schemes are presented; their adequacy, complexity, strengths and limitations with respect to a variety of bus arrangements are discussed; specific application guidelines are provided for a variety of situations. Breaker failure protection is discussed as pertaining to bus protection. Means of securing bus protection schemes against corrupted relay input signals are also included.

Exploring the IEEE C37.234 Guide for Protective Relay Application to Power System Buses

This paper summarizes the IEEE C37.234-2009 Guide for Protective Relay Applications to Power System Buses. In the Guide, concepts of power bus protection are discussed. Consideration is given to availability and location of breakers, current transformers, and disconnectors as well as bus switching scenarios, and their impact on the selection and application of bus protection. A number of bus protection schemes are presented; their adequacy, complexity, strengths and limitations with respect to a variety of bus arrangements are discussed; specific application guidelines are provided for a variety of situations. Breaker failure protection is discussed as pertaining to bus protection. Means of securing bus protection schemes against corrupted relay input signals are also included. Index Terms—Breaker failure protection, bus, check zone, cur- rent transformers, differential bus protection, dynamic bus replica, electric power substation, high impedance differential, partial dif- ferential, percentage differential, protective relaying, stub bus pro- tection, voltage trip supervision, zone interlocked bus protection.

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/6026170/6035494/06035602.pdf

Exploring the IEEE C37.234 Guide for Protective Relay Application to Power System Buses Working Group K14 of the IEEE PES Power System Relaying Committee

This paper summarizes the IEEE C37.234–2009 Guide for Protective Relay Applications to Power System Buses. In the Guide, concepts of power bus protection are discussed. Consideration is given to availability and location of breakers, current transformers, and disconnectors as well as bus switching scenarios, and their impact on the selection and application of bus protection. A number of bus protection schemes are presented; their adequacy, complexity, strengths and limitations with respect to a variety of bus arrangements are discussed; specific application guidelines are provided for a variety of situations. Breaker failure protection is discussed as pertaining to bus protection. Means of securing bus protection schemes against corrupted relay input signals are also included.

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Exploring the IEEE C37.234 Guide for Protective Relay Application to Power System Buses

Exploring the IEEE C37.234 Guide for Protective Relay Application to Power System Buses Working Group K14 of the IEEE PES Power System Relaying Committee

Exploring the IEEE C37.234 Guide for Protective Relay Application to Power System Buses