The structure and properties of metal-semiconductor interfaces

Irradiation of metals and alloys with neutrons, electrons, heavy ions, or γ-rays may introduce up to 108 J/mol of energy in the form of atomic displacements. This energy, which is in the form of vacancies, self-interstitials, and cores of displacement cascades is then available to produce a range of phase changes and microstructural alterations which are not observed under thermal conditions. There exist numerous mechanisms to convert part of this displacement energy into microstructural change, including irradiation-induced solute segregation, Frenkel pair recombination at the particle: matrix interface, irradiation disordering or amorphization, and recoil resolution of atoms from precipitates. In addition, the cores of displacement cascades may act as precipitate nucleation sites and Frenkel pair recombination may trigger spinodal-like instabilities. The theory of these mechanisms is developed in some detail, and is followed by a systematic review of experimentals observations of irradiation-altered phase stability. The observations include enhanced nucleation on displacement cascades, precipitation induced by solute segregation to defect sinks, nucleation of wrong phases, disordering and amorphization, Frenkel pair recombination driven precipitate, and inverse Ostwald ripening.

Phase Stability Under Irradiation

In this review we shall describe and discuss the basics of the ion mixing phenomenon. First, the process is examined by considering only ballistic and kinematic effects associated with collisions between projectile and target atoms. We shall examine how collision cascades and the evolution of dense energy spikes affect the mixing process. We then show how material properties, such as heat of mixing and cohesive energy, influence the mixing process. These properties lead to the physical basis for the occurrence of temperature-independent and temperature-dependent mixing regimes. Finally, we shall examine the phase formation possibilities in the ion-reacted layer, and how irradiation conditions and various material properties can influence the final structure that forms.

Ion beam mixing in metallic and semiconductor materials

MeV 4He backscattering and X-ray diffraction analysis were used to examine the intermixing of niobium thin films on single-crystal silicon during 28Si+ ion bombardment. The ambient temperature dependence of the intermixing is reported. The dependence cannot be explained by either radiation-enhanced diffusion or cascade mixing alone. The silicides, NbSi2, and Nb5Si3, were both observed. Silicide growth was found to be proportional to the square root of the fluence for the case in which the ion range exceeds the film thickness.

Ion-induced silicide formation in niobium thin films

In the practice of analytical electron microscopy, particularly at near-atomic resolution, one is forced by the exigencies of statistics and the briefness of the encounter between fast electrons and the specimen, to use upwards of 104 electrons per A2 in order to acquire information about the identity and position of a single atom (see Sec. 17.6). It is not therefore surprising that, in addition to the “elastic” interaction which provides positional information and the “inelastic” interaction which provides chemical identification, there should be the further prospect of a significant perturbation of the atomic structure under analysis. Such perturbations may be generically labelled radiation effects and, where they lead to permanent alterations in atomic structure, can be sensibly termed radiation damage.

Radiation Effects in Analysis of Inorganic Specimens by TEM

Radiation effects on solid state diffusion

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Radiation effects on solid state diffusion