Early adolescence is often marked by changes in school context, family relationships, and developmental processes. In the context of these changes, academic performance often declines, while at the same time the long-term implications of academic performance increase. In promoting achievement across elementary and secondary school levels, the significant role of families, family-school relations, and parental involvement in education has been highlighted. Although there is a growing body of literature focusing on parental involvement in education during middle school, this research has not been systematically examined to determine which types of involvement have the strongest relation with achievement. The authors conducted a meta-analysis on the existing research on parental involvement in middle school to determine whether and which types of parental involvement are related to achievement. Across 50 studies, parental involvement was positively associated with achievement, with the exception of parental help with homework. Involvement that reflected academic socialization had the strongest positive association with achievement. Based on the known characteristics of the developmental stage and tasks of adolescence, strategies reflecting academic socialization are most consistent with the developmental stage of early adolescence.

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Parental involvement in middle school: a meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement.

I. Introduction. Background. Focus of the review. Review procedure and results. The NEA-TDB data base system. Presentation of the selected data. II. Standards and Conventions. Symbols, terminology and nomenclature. Units and conversion factors. Standard and reference conditions. Fundamental physical constants. III. Selected Uranium Data. IV. Selected Auxiliary Data. V. Discussion of Data Selection. Elemental uranium. Aqua ions. Oxide, hydride and hydroxide species. VI. Discussion of Auxiliary Data Selection. Reference list. Authors list. Formula list. Discussion of selected references. Ionic strength corrections. Assigned uncertainties. The estimation of entropies.

Chemical thermodynamics of uranium

Ethnic minority students are at risk for school failure and show a heightened susceptibility to negative teacher expectancy effects. In the present study, whether the prejudiced attitudes of teachers relate to their expectations and the academic achievement of their students is examined. The prejudiced attitudes of 41 elementary school teachers were assessed via self-report and an Implicit Association Test. Teacher expectations and achievement scores for 434 students were obtained. Multilevel analyses showed no relations with the self-report measure of prejudiced attitudes. The implicit measure of teacher prejudiced attitudes, however, was found to explain differing ethnic achievement gap sizes across classrooms via teacher expectations. The results of this study also suggest that the use of implicit attitude measures may be important in educational research.

The Implicit Prejudiced Attitudes of Teachers Relations to Teacher Expectations and the Ethnic Achievement Gap

A review of the relationship between parental involvement indicators and academic achievement

Parental involvement is seen as an important strategy for the advancement of the quality of education. The ultimate objective of this is to expand the social and cognitive capacities of pupils. In addition, special attention is paid to the children of low-educated and ethnic minority parents. Various forms of both parental and school-initiated involvement are examined. On the one hand, the connections between a number of characteristics of parents and schools such as the social and ethnic background of the parents and the composition of the school population will be examined. On the other hand, the connections between a number of outcome measures such as the language and mathematics skills of the pupils will be examined. Data will be drawn from the large-scale Dutch PRIMA (primary education) cohort study, which contains information on more than 500 schools and 12,000 pupils in the last year of primary school and their parents. An important finding is that predominantly schools with numerous minority pupils appear to provide a considerable amount of extra effort with respect to parental involvement, but that a direct effect of such involvement cannot be demonstrated.

Parental Involvement and Educational Achievement

The aim of this study was to better understand the influence of pupil background characteristics (e.g. gender, SES, ethnicity), various cognitive, and non-cognitive competencies (e.g. school performance, study attitude) and a number of class and school characteristics (e.g. socio-ethnic class composition, degree of urbanization) on the transition of children from primary to secondary education in the Netherlands. In the final grade of Dutch primary school, pupils are advised with regard to the type of secondary education considered most appropriate for them. Recent data from the national large-scale PRIMA cohort study, which includes more than 8,000 pupils and 500 classes, were used to examine differences in the levels of recommendation provided. The results showed the phenomenon of over-recommending or, in other words, groups of pupils receiving an educational recommendation, which is higher than justified by their school performance, to no longer exist. Pupil achievement appeared to be the most important factor for the explanation of the level of recommendation, which clearly provides support for the meritocratic principle.

The Transition from Primary to Secondary Education: Meritocracy and Ethnicity

This paper summarizes the preliminary results of a study of home-school relations in Perm, Russia. The study was closely linked with the Tempus Tacis Project, which developed good working relationships with the Perm State Pedagogical University (PSPU). These links opened the door to an investigation of home-school relationships, an area of growing importance within education. This case study is the first part of an international comparative study on home-school relationships in Russia and Hungary. This paper is focusing on Russia, and highlights the teacher’s perspective on home-school relationships. It offers some examples of the different fora and patterns of interaction between the home and the school in one primary school in Perm. The study investigates the existing home-school relationships and looks into modes of interaction between the teacher and the parents. It points not only to similarities in the thinking and practice of teachers but highlights differences in the intensity of communication. The paper focuses on issues that emerged during the preparation and execution of the study. It briefly examines methodological issues of the research. This is followed by the main part that deals with teacher’s perspectives and activities in the field of home-school relations. The paper concludes in pointing towards issues that will be pursued at a later stage of the research project. Introduction The research was conducted as one part of a comparative study of home-school relationships of Hungary and Russia. The study is closely linked with a Tempus Tacis Project. As a project member I had visited Perm, Russia twice before I started to investigate the relationships between home and school. The Tempus Project allowed me to explore already existing links and relationships with the Perm State Pedagogical University and its ‘pilot’ schools. During previous visits to Perm, the Tempus pilot schools introduced me to Russian schools, their organization, the circumstances they have to work in, staff and school life in general. Focus Looking at the issue of home-school relationships, it seemed necessary to clarify its meaning within the given context. I was able to use the contemporary debate in Russian publications to gain an initial understanding of the topic. Home-school relations, however, need active involvement of all parties, which is why I decided to investigate different angles on this subject. Interviews on parental choice expressed a variety of views on the issue. There seemed to be a common understanding that teachers provide an important part within home-school relations. I therefore was seeking to investigate teacher’s perspectives and views on communication between the home and the school. The following questions were used as a structural device to guide the researcher through the process of investigation. What is the understanding of home-school relationships from the teacher’s perspective? A Bridge to the Future 110 What are some of the examples of the different fora and patterns of interaction between the home and the school? These questions reflect the main direction of the interview schedule and influenced the selection of documentary sources for the study. Within the following, an overview of methodological issues will be given. Methodology Last year I spent two weeks in Perm to collect data focusing on home-school relationships in one of the Tempus Tacis Pilot Schools investigating teachers’ perspectives on home-school relationships and their practice concerning communication with the family. As my research had an exploratory aim, a qualitative approach and research design was developed to reflect this. The main data collection method was semistructured interviews, but as supplementary data source I also used documentary evidence, observation and field notes (Yin, 1994). I interviewed 14 out of 25 primary school class teachers, two psychologists, the social pedagogue and a deputy head. All of my interviewees were female and the interviews lasted between 25-40 minutes. During interviewing an interpreter was present to help with the language although simultaneous translation was rarely done, as I have a good passive knowledge of Russian. The questions were always asked in English allowing the interpreter to translate, to avoid misunderstanding but the answers were translated only in case of a need for clarification. The interpreters were students of PSPU in their final year and studying translation and interpretation skills as special interest. Stress was put on discussing the aim of the research with them and getting to know them before they got engaged in the work. This was essential in order to minimize possible misunderstanding of educational jargon as well as introducing them to the research in which they would play a vital role. In addition to helping with the language the interpreters also provided useful information about the culture, and about the Russian way of thinking. Using interpreters raises questions as to the extent to which interpreters interfere with the process of the interview, but far more they drew attention towards issues of professional language skills versus contextual understanding of the interpreter. The school The school, which accommodated my research can be characterized as a ‘typical’ Russian primary school in Perm, yet with unique qualities. It is a state school with a non-selective admission policy for children between the ages of 6 and 10 and as such does not charge tuition fees. The pupils come from different backgrounds, and their families differ in their financial situation, in parents’ schooling, in the family structure and so on. The school caters for all abilities, including classes for able children and compensatory classes for slow learners. The school has a highly qualified and committed teaching staff. They are supported and advised by a social pedagogue and psychologists, who, despite economic, social and political difficulties in the last few years, have stayed in the profession. The student body numbers 625 children in 25 classes. There are 48 teaching staff working in the school. They are all women except for three male teachers. The teaching staff include the school head, the deputy head for upbringing, the deputy head for educational methods, 24 class teachers, four retired teachers, school psychologists, the aforementioned social pedagogue and specialized teachers, for example for PE, IT and language teaching. Because of the high number of children and the limited size of the school, children go to school in two shifts. Each shift has six 35-minute lessons. The first starts at 8.30 a.m. and finishes at 12.55 p.m.; the afternoon shift lasts from 1.15 to 5.40 p.m. The school educates children for their first three or four years at school. Few of its classes follow a four-year primary compensatory education A Bridge to the Future 111 programme (traditional programme), the majority of classes work according to a three-year developing education programme. Most of the class teachers are involved in voluntary experimental work led by PSPU academics. Within these initiatives teachers are free to develop their own teaching programme in addition to the national curriculum. Teachers can choose to develop areas of special interest for their class such as drama, health and art. At the same time the school has to deal with real financial limitations. It must very often rely on the generosity of wealthy parents who offer the school financial help in purchasing textbooks for their children’s classes. As a result of the school’s good reputation and its programmes for developing education, parents from other school districts are interested in sending their children there. Some of the school’s unique features made it easier for me to conduct the research. First, the school is one of the Tempus-Tacis (Technical Aid Programme) pilot schools. This means that apart from accommodating regular foreign visits, it allows and welcomes researchers and, where it can, makes the most of these. The school head and a few of the staff traveled to Western Europe within the Tempus Project, where they visited schools, LEAs and university departments. These visits add to the good reputation of the school and through the experience gained abroad it has an impact on teachers’ thinking and practice. Secondly, the school built up a very close link with Perm State Pedagogical University, its teaching staff and researchers. The school and the majority of the staff are involved in experimental work stemming from the university. Thirdly, the school is located in a residential area close to the city center and offers easy access for national and international delegations to visit the school. This has also a positive effect on the allocation of resources from the city council. Fourthly, within the school’s catchment area there are no opportunities for children to attend clubs and societies, e.g. there are no sports facilities and no House of Culture nearby. For the school this means providing different after-school activities according to interest to occupy children during their free time. This puts the school under considerable pressure. For these reasons the school has built up good working relationships with outside agencies, for instance, with the swimming pool, puppet theatre, museums, hospitals, etc. The school itself commented on this as a special feature, unusual in the Russian context, suggesting that other schools do not have to deal with this type of problem. This school was selected for the study, because all the qualities described above paved the way to a successful research endeavor. Another important element in choosing this school was that during previous visits I already established good personal contacts with the school head and some of the school staff. This certainly helped when gaining access, since I only had limited time for the fieldwork. Findings The review of Russian per

A Bridge to the Future

In order to expand parental participation in the education of their children, teachers should be equipped with some basic and possibly new skills for communication and cooperation purposes. Schools host a very diverse population of pupils, and the purpose of the present study was therefore to attain a better understanding of what various groups of parents expect of education and the school in order to develop a framework for school strategies to involve different types of parents. The research included a review of the literature, consultation with three expert panels, a web survey of 500 school leaders, an interactive focus group, 20 case studies to identify promising practices and the identification of strategies to expand parental participation. The results showed parents in ‘white’ schools to support teachers during activities ( parents as supporters ). Non-minority parents and certainly those from higher social milieus were accustomed to having a say in school matters ( parents as politicians ). In schools with many disadvantaged pupils, in contrast, little or no attention was paid to having parents have a say in school matters. A bottleneck in ‘white’ schools was that parents do not have time to participate due to their work ( career parents ). A bottleneck in ‘black’ schools is that parents do not perceive themselves as qualified to participate ( absentee parents ). It is further shown that strategies which parallel the different types of parents can be identified for school teams to realize effective partnership relations.

Types of parents and school strategies aimed at the creation of effective partnerships

Family-school-community partnerships merging into social development

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