Silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) are large area detectors consisting of an array of single-photon-sensitive microcells, which make SiPMs extremely attractive to substitute the photomultiplier tubes in many applications. We present the design, fabrication, and characterization of analog SiPMs in standard planar 0.35 μm CMOS technology, with about 1 mm × 1 mm total area and different kinds of microcells, based on single-photon avalanche diodes with 30 μm diameter reaching 21.0% fill-factor (FF), 50 μm diameter (FF = 58.3%) or 50 μm square active area with rounded corner of 5 μm radius (FF = 73.7%). We also developed the electrical SPICE model for CMOS SiPMs. Our CMOS SiPMs have 25 V breakdown voltage, in line with most commercial SiPMs and higher gain (8.8 × 106, 13.2 × 106, and 15.0 × 106, respectively). Although dark count rate density is slightly higher than state-of-the-art analog SiPMs, the proposed standard CMOS processing opens the feasibility of integration with active electronics, for switching hot...

/pdf/planar-cmos-analog-sipms-design-modeling-and-5gujthjda3.pdf

Planar CMOS analog SiPMs: design, modeling, and characterization

In this paper, 4H-SiC separated absorption charge and multiplication ultraviolet avalanche photodiodes (APDs) with small gain-voltage slope and enhanced fill factor are designed and fabricated. As a special reach-through structure, the absorption layer of the APD is fully depleted at breakdown voltage, which can share a considerable portion of reverse bias. As a result, the sensitivity of electric field within the multiplication layer as a function of overbias is reduced, leading to a small gain slope. Given the fact that the impact ionization coefficient of holes is less sensitive to electric field variation than that of electrons, the APD is also designed to be a hole-initiated ionization type, which can further reduce the gain slope. Meanwhile, three different top-electrode geometric patterns of SiC APDs are designed, and their impact on APD performance is investigated for the first time. Severe current crowding effect is observed in the forward current–voltage (I–V) characteristics of the APD with a traditional dot top-electrode, indicating inefficient current spreading across the top contact layer due to nonnegligible lateral resistance. In contrast, the forward I–V characteristics and photo-current at the avalanche regime of the APDs with optimized branch-shaped top-electrodes are apparently improved, owing to the improvement of electric field distribution and avalanche multiplication uniformity across the device active area. Furthermore, photon count rate increases by two to four times with larger voltage pulse height, suggesting enhanced effective avalanche multiplication area and fill factor.

4H-SiC Ultraviolet Avalanche Photodiodes With Small Gain Slope and Enhanced Fill Factor

We reported separate absorption and multiplication InAlAs/InGaAs avalanche photodiodes with a p-type multiplication layer. Wedge-shaped electric field profiles with different gradients and peak intensities confined in a thin InAlAs avalanche layer were realized. These devices showed optimum operating gains up to 40 in linear mode with low operating voltages <20 V, small gain slopes, and high-gain uniformity. Moreover, a reduced breakdown voltage temperature coefficient <6 mV/K in the temperature range of 200–350 K was observed, whereas the dark current showed a noticeable increase. Those multiplication performances are attributed to the modified electric field profiles and are ideally suitable for focal plane array imaging applications.

Low Operating Voltage and Small Gain Slope of InGaAs APDs With p-Type Multiplication Layer

Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs) are emerging single photon detectors used in many applications requiring large active area, photon number resolving capability and immunity to magnetic fields. We developed planar analog SiPMs in a reliable and cost-effective CMOS technology with a total photosensitive area of about 1×1 mm2. Three devices with different active areas, and fill-factor (21%, 58.3%, 73.7%), have been characterized. The maximum photon detection efficiency is in the near-UV and tops at 38% (fill-factor included), with a dark count rate of 125 kcps. Gain and crosstalk depend on the active area size and are comparable to those of commercial best-in-class custom-technology SiPMs. However our full CMOS processing enables advanced SiPM single-chip systems where transistors and further on chip electronics can be integrated together with the detectors.

Analog SiPM in planar CMOS technology

Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs) are emerging single photon detectors used in many applications requiring large active
area, photon-number resolving capability and immunity to magnetic fields. We present three families of analog SiPM
fabricated in a reliable and cost-effective fully standard planar CMOS technology with a total photosensitive area of 1×1
mm 2 . These three families have different active areas with fill-factors (21%, 58.3%, 73.7%) comparable to those of
commercial SiPM, which are developed in vertical (current flow) custom technologies. The peak photon detection
efficiency in the near-UV tops at 38% (fill-factor included) comparable to commercial custom-process ones and dark
count rate density is just a little higher than the best-in-class commercial analog SiPMs. Thanks to the CMOS processing,
these new SiPMs can be integrated together with active components and electronics both within the microcell and on-chip,
in order to act at the microcell level or to perform global pre-processing. We also report CMOS digital SiPMs in
the same standard CMOS technology, based on microcells with digitalized processing, all integrated on-chip. This
CMOS digital SiPMs has four 32×1 cells (128 microcells), each consisting of SPAD, active quenching circuit with
adjustable dead time, digital control (to switch off noisy SPADs and readout position of detected photons), and fast
trigger output signal. The achieved 20% fill-factor is still very good.

/pdf/fully-cmos-analog-and-digital-sipms-1yh4nvtn9z.pdf

Fully CMOS analog and digital SiPMs

A novel structure of silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) is reported. In this structure, a vertical bulk-Si quenching resistor is introduced to replace the poly-Si resistor in the SiPM cell, which can help to improve the fill factor of the SiPM for more efficient photon detection. A current-blocking layer is inserted into the resistor layer to reduce the cross-section of the resistor so that the necessary high quenching resistance can be achieved by the thin resistor layer. The performance of the SiPM cell is confirmed by simulation. The vertical bulk-Si resistors are fabricated and characterized. According to the $I{-}V$ measurements, the structures achieved show good resistor properties. An equivalent quenching resistance in the order of $10^{5}~\Omega$ is observed in a 1- $\mu{\rm m}$ -thick resistor.

Novel Silicon Photomultiplier With Vertical Bulk-Si Quenching Resistors

This paper demonstrates the fabrication of silicon APD array for clinical imaging applications. The fabrication process is compatible with CMOS platform. The measurement results show they are able to achieve low dark current (before breakdown) and operate linearly after breakdown (Geiger mode). Further improvement will be implemented in design and fabrication to improve the leakage current‥

Silicon avalanche photodiode array fabrication for imaging application

A silicon photomultiplier (SiPM fabricated and characterized. The SiPM was (Separation of Absorption, Charge and Multipl which was optimized for blue light detection positron emission tomography (PET). The achieved high geometric fill factor of 64% and a low brea about 22V, while the temperature dependence of b is only 17mV/°C. The gain and photon detection device achieved were also measured under illum 405nm and 460nm wavelengths. The gain of the de of 10. The photon detection efficiency up to 60% under 1.8V overvoltage. Keywords—Photon Detection Efficiency, P Tomography, Silicon Photomultiplier.

Highly Efficient Silicon Photomultiplier for Positron Emission Tomography Application

A new structure of silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) is presented, where lateral bulk-Si resistors was introduced to replace the conventional poly-Si quenching resistors. The replacement can not only eliminate the poly-Si related fabrication process, but also greatly reduce the area of metal wires. Thus the fill factor of the device can be increased noticeably. Furthermore, due to the separation of the contact region and the active region, the quantum efficiency of the device can also be improved, especially for light with visible or ultraviolet wavelengths. The functionality of the device proposed and its performance improvements have been confirmed by numerical simulation. The quantum efficiency at 300nm wavelength increases from 20% to 86%. Therefore, SiPM devices with very high photon detection efficiency will be very likely to be achieved.

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/6423307/6457864/06457990.pdf

Silicon photomultiplier with lateral Bulk-Si quenching resistors

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Novel Silicon Photomultiplier With Vertical Bulk-Si Quenching Resistors

Silicon avalanche photodiode array fabrication for imaging application

Highly Efficient Silicon Photomultiplier for Positron Emission Tomography Application

Silicon photomultiplier with lateral Bulk-Si quenching resistors