This review was performed to investigate the characteristics of vestibular dysfunctions in children with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). The majority of the included studies reported central and/or peripheral vestibular aberrations in a subset of these children. These alterations may result in symptoms of distorted motor coordination or postural instability, and might explain some of the balance problems observed in this population. However, high-quality studies with an extensive vestibular test battery are required to further characterize the vestibular function in NDDs since current findings are ambiguous and mainly based on evaluation of the horizontal semicircular canals alone. Importantly, since vestibular dysfunctions may result in comparable characteristics as found in NDDs, clinicians should be aware of these similarities when establishing the NDD diagnosis.

Vestibular Function in Children with Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A Systematic Review

In the last 5 years, there has been a surge in evidence that hearing loss (HL) may be a risk factor for cognitive dysfunction, including dementia. At the same time, there has been an increase in the number of studies implicating vestibular loss in cognitive dysfunction. Due to the fact that vestibular disorders often present with HL and other auditory disorders such as tinnitus, it has been suggested that, in many cases, what appears to be vestibular-related cognitive dysfunction may be due to HL (e.g., Dobbels et al. Front Neurol 11:710, 2020). This review analyses the studies of vestibular-related cognitive dysfunction which have controlled HL. It is suggested that despite the fact that many studies in the area have not controlled HL, many other studies have (~ 19/44 studies or 43%). Therefore, although there is certainly a need for further studies controlling HL, there is evidence to suggest that vestibular loss is associated with cognitive dysfunction, especially related to spatial memory. This is consistent with the overwhelming evidence from animal studies that the vestibular system transmits specific types of information about self-motion to structures such as the hippocampus.

Hearing loss versus vestibular loss as contributors to cognitive dysfunction.

Vestibular function in children with neurodevelopmental disorders : a systematic review

This perspective explores common pediatric diagnoses that could present with central vestibular pathway dysfunction, leading to delays in motor development and postural control, and gaze instability. Specifically, the following diagnoses are considered: cerebral palsy, myelomeningocele, vestibular migraine, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, developmental coordination disorder, concussion, childhood cancer, congenital muscular torticollis, adolescent idiopathic scoliosis, and autism. Suggestions for clinical screening, vestibular function testing, and vestibular rehabilitation for children with these diagnoses are based on evidence for the efficacy of testing and interventions for children with peripheral vestibular hypofunction. More research is needed to explore peripheral and central vestibular function in children with these diagnoses. Testing and intervention methods may need to be modified to accommodate for the specific behavior and motor challenges that some children might present. Researchers should develop technology so that gaze stabilization exercises can be delivered in a fun, functional, and effective way.

Considerations for Testing and Treating Children with Central Vestibular Impairments

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) consists of repetitious physical and psychological symptoms. The symptoms occur during the luteal phase of the menstrual period and cease when the menstrual period starts. This study included pre-test and post-test experiments between a control group and a test group. The statistical population involved 40 females, chosen based on multistage cluster sampling. The participants were then divided into four groups to undergo treatment with calcium supplement plus vitamin D together with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and were screened with the Premenstrual Syndrome Screening Test (PSST). The pre-test and post-test scores in the PSST, the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28), and Bell's Adjustment Inventory (BAI) were used as assessment tools (p < .05). According to the parameters of PMS symptoms, when evaluating the pre-test and post-test scores, the overall score of each individual in the experimental group was improved and a significant effect for the combination of calcium supplement plus vitamin D together with CBT was observed in comparison to the post-test control group. A comparison of multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) results collected from the pre-test and post-test scores revealed that the method of treatment was beneficial for PMS, adjustment, and general health.

Treatment of premenstrual syndrome: Appraising the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy in addition to calcium supplement plus vitamin D

OBJECTIVES Vestibular dysfunction in childhood can have a major effect on a child's developmental process Balance function has been reported to be poorer in children with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) than in their typically developing peers Due to contradictory available evidence and the paucity of research on vestibular function specifically in children with combined ADHD (cADHD), we designed this aged-matched study to assess vestibular function in children with cADHD DESIGN We enrolled 30 typically developing children (15 boys and 15 girls; mean age, 9 years 6 months; range, 7 to 12 years) and 33 children (19 boys and 14 girls; mean age, 9 years 0 months; range, 7 to 12 years) with cADHD diagnosed by our research psychiatrist Typically developing controls were used to obtain normative data on vestibular testing and to examine the impact of age on the vestibular response parameters, and these results were compared with those of the cADHD group All children underwent the sinusoidal harmonic acceleration subtype of the rotary chair test (001, 002, 008, 016, and 032 Hz) and the cervical vestibular-evoked myogenic potential (cVEMP) test RESULTS At all five frequencies in the sinusoidal harmonic acceleration test, there was no significant correlation between age and any of the following rotary chair response parameters in typically developing children: vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) gain, phase, asymmetry, and fixation index Furthermore, there was no significant correlation between age and any of the following cVEMP parameters for the right and left ears of control group: p1 and n1 latency, amplitude, threshold, and amplitude ratio Significantly higher VOR gains were observed for children with cADHD at frequencies of 001 (p = 0001), 008 (p < 0001), 016 (p = 0001), and 032 (p = 0003) Hz, when compared with the control group Furthermore, fixation abilities were significantly lower in the cADHD group than in the control group at 016 (p < 0001) and 032 (p < 0001) Hz cVEMP parameters showed no significant differences between the two groups CONCLUSIONS Our results showed higher VOR gains and poorer fixation abilities in children with cADHD compared with typically developing children Cerebellar dysfunction in patients with ADHD has been well documented in the literature, and our findings of cVEMP and rotary chair tests for these children showed impaired vestibular function in these children, based on increased VOR gain values and decreased fixation capabilities Because VOR gain is mediated through the inferior olive and controlled by the cerebellum, our results suggest that central inhibition of vestibular function may be deficient in children with cADHD, resulting in higher VOR gains Also, there is general agreement that failure of fixation suppression indicates a central lesion The lesion can originate from the parietal-occipital cortex, the pons, or the cerebellum However, failure of fixation suppression is most prominent in lesions involving the midline cerebellum that could be counted for children with cADHD We believe that this contribution is theoretically and practically relevant as high VOR gains and decreased suppression capabilities may result in symptoms of reading and writing difficulties, learning disabilities, vertigo, and motion sickness in these children Therefore, assessment of vestibular function in children with cADHD at a young age must be considered when developing rehabilitation protocols for these children

Rotational and Collic Vestibular-Evoked Myogenic Potential Testing in Normal Developing Children and Children With Combined Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

Preliminary evidence of improved cognitive performance following vestibular rehabilitation in children with combined ADHD (cADHD) and concurrent vestibular impairment.

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Rotational and Collic Vestibular-Evoked Myogenic Potential Testing in Normal Developing Children and Children With Combined Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

Preliminary evidence of improved cognitive performance following vestibular rehabilitation in children with combined ADHD (cADHD) and concurrent vestibular impairment.