Recent advances in materials, manufacturing, biotechnology, and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) have fostered many exciting biosensors and bioactuators that are based on biocompatible piezoelectric materials. These biodevices can be safely integrated with biological systems for applications such as sensing biological forces, stimulating tissue growth and healing, as well as diagnosing medical problems. Herein, the principles, applications, future opportunities, and challenges of piezoelectric biomaterials for medical uses are reviewed thoroughly. Modern piezoelectric biosensors/bioactuators are developed with new materials and advanced methods in microfabrication/encapsulation to avoid the toxicity of conventional lead-based piezoelectric materials. Intriguingly, some piezoelectric materials are biodegradable in nature, which eliminates the need for invasive implant extraction. Together, these advancements in the field of piezoelectric materials and microsystems can spark a new age in the field of medicine.

Piezoelectric Biomaterials for Sensors and Actuators

Structural color materials from existing natural organisms have been widely studied to enable artificial manufacture. Variable iridescence has attracted particular interest because of the displays of various brilliant examples. Existing synthetic, variable, structural color materials require external stimuli to provide changing displays, despite autonomous regulation being widespread among natural organisms, and therefore suffer from inherent limitations. Inspired by the structural color regulation mechanism of chameleons, we present a conceptually different structural color material that has autonomic regulation capability by assembling engineered cardiomyocyte tissues on synthetic inverse opal hydrogel films. The cell elongation and contraction in the beating processes of the cardiomyocytes caused the inverse opal structure of the substrate film to follow the same cycle of volume or morphology changes. This was observed as the synchronous shifting of its photonic band gap and structural colors. Such biohybrid structural color hydrogels can be used to construct a variety of living materials, such as two-dimensional self-regulating structural color patterns and three-dimensional dynamic Morpho butterflies. These examples indicated that the stratagem could provide an intrinsic color-sensing feedback to modify the system behavior/action for future biohybrid robots. In addition, by integrating the biohybrid structural color hydrogels into microfluidics, we developed a "heart-on-a-chip" platform featuring microphysiological visuality for biological research and drug screening. This biohybrid, living, structural color hydrogel may be widely used in the design of a variety of intelligent actuators and soft robotic devices.

https://robotics.sciencemag.org/content/robotics/3/16/eaar8580.full-text.pdf

Bioinspired living structural color hydrogels

Incorporating gold nanowires into scaffolds used to create heart patches can improve electrical communication between cells and enhance the growth of tissues.

Nanowired three-dimensional cardiac patches

Among various classes of biomaterials, the majority of non-centrosymmetric crystalline materials exhibit piezoelectric properties, i.e., the accumulation of charge in response to applied mechanical stress or deformation. Due to the growing interest in nanomaterials, piezoelectric nano-biomaterials have been widely investigated, leading to remarkable advancements throughout the last two decades. Piezoelectric properties, high surface energy, targeting properties, and intricate cell–material interactions render piezoelectric nanomaterials highly attractive for application in therapeutics as well as regenerative medicine. Herein, the major focus is to highlight the wide range of applications of piezoelectric nano-biomaterials in drug delivery, theranostics, and tissue regeneration. After a brief introduction to piezoelectricity, an overview is provided on the major classes of piezoelectric biomaterials as well as a description of the origin of biopiezoelectricity in different tissues and macromolecules. Subsequently, relevant properties and postfabrication strategies of nanostructured piezoelectric biomaterials are discussed aiming to maximize piezoresponse. Finally, recent studies on nanopiezoceramics and piezopolymers are presented, with specific focus on barium titanate, zinc oxide, and polyvinylidene fluoride.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/adfm.201909045

Piezoelectric Nano‐Biomaterials for Biomedicine and Tissue Regeneration

Piezoelectric materials as stimulatory biomedical materials and scaffolds for bone repair

Flexible nanofilms coated with aligned piezoelectric microfibers preserve the contractility of cardiomyocytes

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Flexible nanofilms coated with aligned piezoelectric microfibers preserve the contractility of cardiomyocytes