The air–sea fluxes of momentum, heat, freshwater and their components have been computed globally from 1948 at frequencies ranging from 6-hourly to monthly. All fluxes are computed over the 23 years from 1984 to 2006, but radiation prior to 1984 and precipitation before 1979 are given only as climatological mean annual cycles. The input data are based on NCEP reanalysis only for the near surface vector wind, temperature, specific humidity and density, and on a variety of satellite based radiation, sea surface temperature, sea-ice concentration and precipitation products. Some of these data are adjusted to agree in the mean with a variety of more reliable satellite and in situ measurements, that themselves are either too short a duration, or too regional in coverage. The major adjustments are a general increase in wind speed, decrease in humidity and reduction in tropical solar radiation. The climatological global mean air–sea heat and freshwater fluxes (1984–2006) then become 2 W/m2 and −0.1 mg/m2 per second, respectively, down from 30 W/m2 and 3.4 mg/m2 per second for the unaltered data. However, decadal means vary from 7.3 W/m2 (1977–1986) to −0.3 W/m2 (1997–2006). The spatial distributions of climatological fluxes display all the expected features. A comparison of zonally averaged wind stress components across ocean sub-basins reveals large differences between available products due both to winds and to the stress calculation. Regional comparisons of the heat and freshwater fluxes reveal an alarming range among alternatives; typically 40 W/m2 and 10 mg/m2 per second, respectively. The implied ocean heat transports are within the uncertainty of estimates from ocean observations in both the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific basins. They show about 2.4 PW of tropical heating, of which 80% is transported to the north, mostly in the Atlantic. There is similar good agreement in freshwater transport at many latitudes in both basins, but neither in the South Atlantic, nor at 35°N.

The global climatology of an interannually varying air–sea flux data set

Population connectivity plays significant roles on both evolutionary and ecological time-scales; however, quantifying the magnitude and pattern of ex- change between populations of marine organisms is hindered by the difficulty of tracking the trajectory and fate of propagules. We explored biophysical correlates of population substructure to determine how well pelagic larval duration (PLD) correlates with population genetic estimates of connectivity in a sample of 300 published studies drawn pseudo-randomly from about 1600 hits on electronic searches. In direct contrast to the general expectation of a strong correlation, we find that average PLD is poorly correlated (r 2 < 0.1) with genetic structure (FST). Furthermore, even this weak correlation is anchored by non-pelagic dispersal, because removal of the zero PLD class (direct developers) from the analy- sis resulted in a non-significant relationship between FST and PLD. For species in which minimum, maximum, and mean PLDs were available, it is noteworthy that both minimum and maximum PLDs are better corre- lated with FST than the mean larval duration, which has been used in all such previous studies. A 3-way AN- COVA reveals that genetic marker class (allozymes, microsatellites, and mitochondrial DNA sequences), as opposed to habitat or swimming ability, explain most of the variation in FST (F = 7.113, df = 2, p = 0.001), with higher values of FST obtained from mtDNA than with either microsatellites or allozymes (which were not sig- nificantly different). Our meta-analysis refutes recent reviews and conventional wisdom that PLD is a good predictor of the magnitude of gene flow and geo- graphic scale of population structure in marine systems.

/pdf/population-genetics-larval-dispersal-and-connectivity-in-148msamk1s.pdf

Population genetics, larval dispersal, and connectivity in marine systems

Satellite measurements of surface wind stress from the QuikSCAT scatterometer and sea surface temperature (SST) from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Microwave Imager are analyzed for the three-month period 21 July‐20 October 1999 to investigate ocean‐atmosphere coupling in the eastern tropical Pacific. Oceanic tropical instability waves (TIWs) with periods of 20‐40 days and wavelengths of 1000‐2000 km perturb the SST fronts that bracket both sides of the equatorial cold tongue, which is centered near 1 8S to the east of 1308W. These perturbations are characterized by cusp-shaped features that propagate systematically westward on both sides of the equator. The space‐time structures of these SST perturbations are reproduced with remarkable detail in the surface wind stress field. The wind stress divergence is shown to be linearly related to the downwind component of the SST gradient with a response on the south side of the cold tongue that is about twice that on the north side. The wind stress curl is linearly related to the crosswind component of the SST gradient with a response that is approximately half that of the wind stress divergence response to the downwind SST gradient. The perturbed SST and wind stress fields propagate synchronously westward with the TIWs. This close coupling between SST and wind stress supports the Wallace et al. hypothesis that surface winds vary in response to SST modification of atmospheric boundary layer stability.

/pdf/observations-of-coupling-between-surface-wind-stress-and-sea-5dz4dupw0a.pdf

Observations of coupling between surface wind stress and sea surface temperature in the Eastern Tropical Pacific

The scatterometers on board the European remote sensing (ERS) satellites have proven their usefulness for weather analyses and forecasting, and operational programmes are being developed to provide routine scatterometer observations. The advanced scatterometer (ASCAT) on board the meteorological operational (MetOp) platforms is the follow on for European scatterometers. This paper describes the ASCAT system and its capabilities, including the instrument, calibration, ground processing, and products, and reviews the science associated with scatterometer measurements.

/pdf/the-advanced-scatterometer-ascat-on-the-meteorological-2gww0vzist.pdf

The advanced scatterometer (ASCAT) on the meteorological operational (MetOp) platform: A follow on for European wind scatterometers

Publisher Summary The basic concept of satellite altimetry is to measure the range from the satellite to the sea surface. The altimeter transmits a short pulse of microwave radiation with known power toward the sea surface. The pulse interacts with the rough sea surface and a part of the incident radiation reflects back to the altimeter. The chapter emphasizes on the correction algorithms applied to the dual-frequency altimeter onboard the TOPEX/POSEIDON (T/P) satellite. This state-of-the-art altimeter sets the standard for future altimeter missions as it is significantly more accurate than any of the other altimeters that have been launched to date. To provide assurance that the performance requirements for altimeter measurement accuracy are met or exceeded, extensive calibration and validation (cal/val) are important elements of altimeter missions. Cal/val embraces a wide variety of activities, ranging from the interpretation of information from internal-calibration modes of the sensors to the validation of the fully corrected sea-level estimates using in situ data. The chapter concludes with a summary of the T/P mission design and an assessment of the performance of the T/P dual-frequency altimeter in addition, as well as an overview of future altimeter missions.

Chapter 1 Satellite Altimetry

Scatterometry and scatterometer design issues are reviewed. The design of the NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT) to be flown on the Japanese ADEOS mission is presented. Building on Seasat experience, the NSCAT system includes several enhancements, such as three antenna azimuths in each of two swaths, and an onboard digital Doppler processor to allow backscatter measurements to be colocated everywhere within the orbit. These enhancements will greatly increase the quality of the NSCAT wind data. The ground processing of data is discussed, and scatterometers of the next decade are briefly described. >

/pdf/spaceborne-radar-measurement-of-wind-velocity-over-the-ocean-5d7xciw7i9.pdf

Spaceborne radar measurement of wind velocity over the ocean-an overview of the NSCAT scatterometer system

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Spaceborne radar measurement of wind velocity over the ocean-an overview of the NSCAT scatterometer system