1 Root Ecology and Root Physiology- 2 General Survey of Root-Study Methods- 21 Historical Development- 22 Principles of Classification- 23 Selection of the Best Method- 3 Excavation Methods- 31 Introduction- 32 Outline of the Classical Method- 321 Selection of the Plant- 322 Digging the Trench- 323 Excavating the Root System- 324 Drawings and Photographs- 325 Preparation and Storage of Excavated Root Systems- 326 Review of Applications- 327 Advantages and Disadvantages- 33 Modifications of the Classical Method- 331 Excavations with Water Pressure- 332 Excavations with Air Pressure- 333 Excavations in a Horizontal Plane- 334 Sector Method- 4 Monolith Methods- 41 Introduction- 42 Simple Spade Methods- 43 The Common Monolith Method- 431 Square Monoliths- 432 Round Monoliths- 44 Box Methods- 45 Cage Methods- 46 Needleboard Methods- 461 General Survey- 462 Construction and Preparation of the Needleboards- 463 Excavating the Monoliths- 464 Washing Procedure- 465 Photographing and Sectioning- 466 Special Modifications- 467 Evaluation of the Methods- 5 Auger Methods- 51 Specific Features- 52 Sampling Techniques- 521 Techniques with Hand Augers- 5211 Sampling Procedure- 5212 Number or Replications- 5213 Special Technique for Studying Tree Roots- 522 Mechanized Techniques- 523 Core-Sampling Machines- 53 The Core-Break Method- 54 Advantages and Drawbacks- 6 Profile Wall Methods- 61 General Survey- 62 The Traditional Trench Profile Method- 621 Digging the Trench- 622 Preparing the Profile Wall- 623 Exposing the Roots- 624 Mapping and Counting Procedure- 6241 Determination of Root Number- 6242 Determination of Root Length- 63 The Foil Method- 64 Technique in a Horizontal Plane- 65 Evaluation and Applications- 7 Glass Wall Methods- 71 Introduction- 72 Glass-Faced Profile Walls- 73 Root Laboratories- 731 General Survey- 732 Features of Their Design- 733 Methods of Recording- 734 Light Sensitivity of Roots- 735 Recent Research in Root Laboratories- 74 Root Observations with Glass Tubes- 75 Evaluation of the Methods- 8 Indirect Methods- 81 Introduction- 82 Determination of Soil Water Content- 821 Gravimetric Method- 822 Neutron Method- 83 Staining Techniques- 84 Uptake of Non-Radioactive Tracers- 85 Radioactive Tracer Methods- 851 General Survey- 852 Soil Injection Technique- 853 Plant Injection Technique- 854 Root Studies with 14C- 855 Critical Evaluation- 9 Other Methods- 91 Measuring Root-Pulling Strength- 92 Measuring Root-Clump Weight- 93 Measuring Root Tensile Strength- 94 Root Measurements Using Soil Sections- 95 Root-Detecting Method- 96 Mesh Bag Method- 97 Root Replacement Method- 98 Root Investigations with Paper Chromatography- 99 Electrical Methods- 910 Determination of Growth Rings in Tree Roots- 911 Investigations of Root Hairs- 912 Determination of Root Nodules- 913 Determination of Mycorrhizae- 10 Container Methods- 101 General Features- 102 Rooting Volume and Container Size- 103 Types of Containers- 1031 Small Pots- 1032 Boxes and Tubes- 1033 Glass-Faced Containers- 1034 Flexible Tubes- 104 Rooting Media- 105 Filling the Containers- 106 Seed Technique- 107 Irrigation Problems- 108 Special Washing Procedures- 109 Modified Container Methods- 1091 Cage Method- 1092 Needleboard Method- 1093 Root Training by Plastic Tubes- 1094 Split-Root Technique- 1095 Undisturbed Soil Monoliths- 1010 Root Studies in Nutrient Solutions- 1011 Root Studies in Mist Chambers- 1012 Comparability of Results from Container Experiments with Field Data- 11 Techniques of Root Washing- 111 Dry Sieving- 112 Storing Soil-Root Samples Before Washing- 113 Chemicals for Facilitating Root Washing- 114 Washing Roots by Hand- 115 Flotation Method- 116 Root-Washing Machines- 117 Nutrient Losses from Roots During Washing- 118 Cleaning Roots from Debris- 119 Storing Roots After Washing- 12 Root Parameters and Their Measurement- 121 General Aspects- 122 Root Number- 123 Root Weight- 1231 Determination of Fresh Weight- 1232 Determination of Dry Weight- 1233 Advantages and Critical Objections- 124 Root Surface- 1241 Calculation from Other Parameters- 1242 Photoelectric Measurements- 1243 Adsorption Methods- 125 Root Volume- 1251 Calculation from Other Parameters- 1252 Displacement Technique- 126 Root Diameter- 1261 Measurements- 1262 Applications in Tree Root Studies- 127 Root Length- 1271 Direct Measurements- 1272 Intersection Methods- 1273 Root-Counting Machines- 1274 Reasons for Increasing Use of Root Length Measurements- 128 Root Tips- 1281 Technique of Counting- 1282 Root Coefficients- 129 Shoot-Root Relations- 13 Some Future Aspects for the Use of Ecological Root-Study Methods- References

Methods of studying root systems

Despite the fact that most plants accumulate both sodium (Na(+)) and chloride (Cl(-)) ions to high concentration in their shoot tissues when grown in saline soils, most research on salt tolerance in annual plants has focused on the toxic effects of Na(+) accumulation. There have also been some recent concerns about the ability of hydroponic systems to predict the responses of plants to salinity in soil. To address these two issues, an experiment was conducted to compare the responses to Na(+) and to Cl(-) separately in comparison with the response to NaCl in a soil-based system using two varieties of faba bean (Vicia faba), that differed in salinity tolerance. The variety Nura is a salt-sensitive variety that accumulates Na(+) and Cl(-) to high concentrations while the line 1487/7 is salt tolerant which accumulates lower concentrations of Na(+) and Cl(-). Soils were prepared which were treated with Na(+) or Cl(-) by using a combination of different Na(+) salts and Cl(-) salts, respectively, or with NaCl. While this method produced Na(+)-dominant and Cl(-)-dominant soils, it unavoidably led to changes in the availability of other anions and cations, but tissue analysis of the plants did not indicate any nutritional deficiencies or toxicities other than those targeted by the salt treatments. The growth, water use, ionic composition, photosynthesis, and chlorophyll fluorescence were measured. Both high Na(+) and high Cl(-) reduced growth of faba bean but plants were more sensitive to Cl(-) than to Na(+). The reductions in growth and photosynthesis were greater under NaCl stress and the effect was mainly additive. An important difference to previous hydroponic studies was that increasing the concentrations of NaCl in the soil increased the concentration of Cl(-) more than the concentration of Na(+). The data showed that salinity caused by high concentrations of NaCl can reduce growth by the accumulation of high concentrations of both Na(+) and Cl(-) simultaneously, but the effects of the two ions may differ. High Cl(-) concentration reduces the photosynthetic capacity and quantum yield due to chlorophyll degradation which may result from a structural impact of high Cl(-) concentration on PSII. High Na(+) interferes with K(+) and Ca(2+) nutrition and disturbs efficient stomatal regulation which results in a depression of photosynthesis and growth. These results suggest that the importance of Cl(-) toxicity as a cause of reductions in growth and yield under salinity stress may have been underestimated.

/pdf/high-concentrations-of-na-and-cl-ions-in-soil-solution-have-1v757mwfcs.pdf

High concentrations of Na+ and Cl– ions in soil solution have simultaneous detrimental effects on growth of faba bean under salinity stress

Soil salinity affects large areas of the world's cultivated land, causing significant reductions in crop yield. Despite the fact that most plants accumulate both sodium (Na(+)) and chloride (Cl(-)) ions in high concentrations in their shoot tissues when grown in saline soils, most research on salt tolerance in annual plants has focused on the toxic effects of Na(+) accumulation. It has previously been suggested that Cl(-) toxicity may also be an important cause of growth reduction in barley plants. Here, the extent to which specific ion toxicities of Na(+) and Cl(-) reduce the growth of barley grown in saline soils is shown under varying salinity treatments using four barley genotypes differing in their salt tolerance in solution and soil-based systems. High Na(+), Cl(-), and NaCl separately reduced the growth of barley, however, the reductions in growth and photosynthesis were greatest under NaCl stress and were mainly additive of the effects of Na(+) and Cl(-) stress. The results demonstrated that Na(+) and Cl(-) exclusion among barley genotypes are independent mechanisms and different genotypes expressed different combinations of the two mechanisms. High concentrations of Na(+) reduced K(+) and Ca(2+) uptake and reduced photosynthesis mainly by reducing stomatal conductance. By comparison, high Cl(-) concentration reduced photosynthetic capacity due to non-stomatal effects: there was chlorophyll degradation, and a reduction in the actual quantum yield of PSII electron transport which was associated with both photochemical quenching and the efficiency of excitation energy capture. The results also showed that there are fundamental differences in salinity responses between soil and solution culture, and that the importance of the different mechanisms of salt damage varies according to the system under which the plants were grown.

/pdf/additive-effects-of-na-and-cl-ions-on-barley-growth-under-126fpzku5i.pdf

Additive effects of Na+ and Cl– ions on barley growth under salinity stress

1 Introduction- 11 Definition of Semiarid and Arid Regions- 12 Major Soil Characteristics- 13 Crop Production Systems- 14 Irrigation- 15 Changes in Fertilization Practices- 16 References- 2 Nitrogen- 21 Nitrogen Fertilizers- 211 Ammonia Fertilizers- 2111 Anhydrous Ammonia- 2112 Aqua Ammonia- 2113 Urea- 2114 Ammonium Salts- 212 Nitrate Fertilizers- 213 Slow-release Nitrogen Fertilizers- 2131 Urea Formaldehyde- 2132 Sulfur-coated Urea- 2133 Nitrification Inhibitors- 22 Fate of Nitrogen Fertilizers in Soils- 221 Oxidation of Ammonia- 222 Volatilization of Ammonia from Soils- 223 Denitrification of Applied Nitrogen- 224 Nitrogen Immobilization- 225 Nitrate Leaching- 23 Crop Response to Nitrogen Fertilizers- 231 Methods for Estimating Available Nitrogen- 232 Nitrogen Fertilizer Requirements of Crops- 2321 Cotton- 2322 Corn- 2323 Grain Sorghum- 2324 Wheat- 2325 Grassland- 2326 Legumes- 2327 Sugar Beets- 2328 Potatoes- 2329 Tobacco- 23210 Orchards- 24 Methods of Nitrogen Fertilizer Application- 25 References- 3 Phosphorus- 31 Phosphate Fertilizers- 311 Superphosphates- 312 Phosphoric Acids- 313 Ammonium Phosphates- 314 Nitric Phosphates- 32 Reactions of Phosphorus in Soils- 33 Methods of Phosphate Fertilizer Application- 34 Residual Effect of Phosphate Fertilizers- 35 Phosphate Availability- 351 Uptake of Phosphorus by Plants- 352 Contribution of the Solid Phase to Phosphate Availability- 353 Methods for Estimating Available Phosphorus- 36 Response of Crops to Phosphate Fertilization- 37 References- 4 Potassium- 41 Potassium Fertilizers- 42 Reactions of Potassium Fertilizers in Soil- 43 Methods for Evaluation of Plant-available Potassium- 44 Potassium Movement- 45 Potassium Fertilization of Crops- 46 References- 5 Secondary and Micronutrients- 51 The Secondary Nutrients- 511 Calcium- 512 Magnesium- 513 Sulfur- 52 Micronutrients- 521 Zinc- 522 Iron- 523 Manganese- 524 Copper, Boron, and Molybdenum- 53 References- 6 Special Fertilization Practices and Multinutrient Fertilizers- 61 Multinutrient Fertilizers- 611 Solid Fertilizers- 612 Liquid Fertilizers- 62 Application of Fertilizers in Irrigation Water- 63 Fertilizers for Greenhouse Cultures- 64 Fertilizers for Foliar Application- 65 Fertilization Under Saline and Alkaline Conditions- 66 References- 7 Determining Fertilizer Requirements- 71 Determination of Nutrient Availability- 711 Visual Deficiency Symptoms- 712 Plant Analyses- 713 Soil Testing- 72 Field Experiments- 73 Yield Equations- 74 Estimating Economic Returns- 75 Fertilizers Rates Recommendations- 76 References

Fertilization of dryland and irrigated soils.

Dr. David Tsao, Hydrocarbon and Environmental Management Group, Global Envionmental Management Business Unit, BP Amoco Corporation, 150 W. Warrenville Rd., Mail Code H-7, Naperville, IL 60563 The U.S. livestock industry has evolved to confine a large number of animals on a few farms in concentrated areas in many states. The trend to fewer, larger operations coupled with highly intensive production methods has resulted in more concentration of manure nutrients within relatively small geographic areas. Researchers in these areas have reported that manure production is contributing more phosphorus (P) than available cropland can assimilate. Overapplication of manure nutrients combined with low P removal rates by many crops is frequently cited as a reason for the accumulation of excess soil P. We propose that higher amounts of soil P can be removed from soil using vegetative management. Soil P concentration can be reduced in fields with excess levels by using P-hyperaccumulator plants or growing plants that h...

Development of P-Hyperaccumulator Plant Strategies to Remediate Soils with Excess P Concentrations

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum var. ‘Stoneville 213’) was grown in greenhouse pots containing Hartsells fine sandy loam. Four rates of P were employed and the crop was harvested on three different dates. Dry matter yield of tops and uptake of P were measured. Roots were recovered and their length determined. These data were used to calculate a rate of P uptake per meter of roots which in turn was related to quantity and intensity of soil P. A parameter that combines the effects of quantity, intensity, and P buffering capacity was derived, and rate of P uptake was found to be related to this parameter. Rate of P uptake increased with rate of root growth.

Cotton Root Growth and Uptake of Nutrients: Relation of Phosphorus Uptake to Quantity, Intensity, and Buffering Capacity

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Cotton Root Growth and Uptake of Nutrients: Relation of Phosphorus Uptake to Quantity, Intensity, and Buffering Capacity