Prior to 1950, studies of estuaries were primarily observational. Rhodes ( 1950), for instance, described velocities and salinities in several estuaries along the eastern coast of the United States. Stommel & Farmer (1952) compiled data from 20 world­ wide estuaries, ranging in size from the Moros in France (2.3 km long and a few meters deep) to the Straits of Juan de Fuca (100 km long and 350 m deep). Their report, although more than 20 years old, remains one of the more extensive compilations of salinity and velocity data in existence and, in addition, shows the wide range of water bqdies we call estuaries. Since the appearance in the early 1950s of Ketchum's work (1951a,b, 1955), of the unpublished manuscript On the Nature of Estuarine Circulation by Stommel & Farmer (1952), and of Pritchard's analyses of the salt balance in the James (1952 and later), researchers have used more analytic techniques to try to understand the process of mixing in estuaries and to quantify such aspects as residence times and pollutant concentrations. It is not easy to agree on what an estuary is. Schubel (1971) listed 10 earlier definitions each of which he found unacceptable for some reason and settled on an eleventh definition by Pritchard (1967): "An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water which has a free connection with the open sea and within which sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived from land drainage. " Even this definition is inadequate for our purpose, because it excludes such estuaries as San Diego Bay where the fresh-water flow is less than the evaporation, but which can be treated like other estuaries with respect to mixing problems. For our purposes it may be more appropriate to say that estuaries are something like pornography­ hard to define exactly, but we know one when we see one. A number of writers (Stommel & Farmer 1952, Bowden 1967, Pritchard 1967, Schubel 1971, Dyer 1973) have given classification schemes for estuaries. In hydro­ dynamic terms all the schemes distinguish three major categories: sharply stratified estuaries, such as fjords and salt-wedge estuaries; partially stratified estuaries, in which there is a significant vertical-density gradient and vertical mixing is inhibited;

Mixing and Dispersion in Estuaries

Determining the zone of impact of norovirus contamination in shellfish production areas through microbiological monitoring and hydrographic analysis.

A simple, largely mechanical device for automatically collecting periodic discrete water samples for use in dye tracer studies has been developed and successfully used by the U.S. Geological Survey. The device consists essentially of two rows of spring-loaded hypodermic syringes that are released from their closed position at selected time intervals to draw in and retain the desired water samples. The sampler is mounted in a boatlike structure partially immersed in the flow to be sampled.

Automatic sampler for dye tracer studies

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/139/3561/1278.2.full.pdf

Chemical Reaction Engineering. An introduction to the design of chemical reactors. Octave Levenspiel. Wiley, New York, 1962. xv + 501 pp. Illus. $10.75

Contamination of shellfish waters with human noroviruses: environmental risk factors and management options By Carlos José Alexandre de Campos This thesis reports research undertaken to better understand the factors that influence norovirus (NoV) contamination in shellfish production areas (SPAs). This knowledge is necessary to develop control measures for mitigating risk from NoV contamination in SPAs. Predictive models were developed for concentrations of NoV (as measured by the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction method) and Escherichia coli (as measured by the culture method) in shellfish from 31 harvesting sites and climatic, hydrometric, demographic and pollution source-related characteristics of upstream river catchments. Concentrations of NoV in shellfish increased as water temperature decreased and volume of sewage discharges and river flows increased. Concentrations of E. coli increased as rainfall also increased. Field studies were conducted in an estuary and in a coastal embayment to inform risk management measures for these sites. Concentrations of NoV and E. coli and their removal efficiencies were quantified in effluents from primary, secondary and tertiary treatments at four sewage treatment works. Shellfish were placed at different distances downstream of sewage discharges and tested for NoV and E. coli. Dye tracing and drogue tracking studies were conducted to quantify the dispersion and dilution of sewage effluents. Significant NoV reductions were found as sewage treatment levels increased. Activated sludge was more effective in reducing NoV than trickling filters. Norovirus was frequently detected in sewage effluents and in shellfish. It was found that a NoV limit for shellfish established at 100 copies/g would have a high compliance impact on SPAs. The dispersive characteristics of the dye-tagged effluents were consistent with the variation of NoV contamination in the study sites. A buffer zone established at 1,000:1 dilution of estuarine water to treated effluent would afford a high level of public health protection while a buffer zone established at much lower dilution ratios (e.g. 300:1) would represent a much higher health risk.

Contamination of shellfish waters with human noroviruses : environmental risk factors and management options

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/pdf/tracer-simulation-study-of-potential-solute-movement-in-port-ztv40pyg6u.pdf

Tracer simulation study of potential solute movement in Port Royal Sound, South Carolina

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Tracer simulation study of potential solute movement in Port Royal Sound, South Carolina