Binder jet 3D printing—Process parameters, materials, properties, modeling, and challenges

Binder Jet printing is an additive manufacturing technique that dispenses liquid binding agent on powder to form a two-dimensional pattern on a layer. The layers are stacked to build a physical article. Binder Jetting (BJ) can be adapted to almost any powder with high production rates and the BJ process utilizes a broad range of technologies including printing tehniques, powder deposition, dynamic binder/powder interaction, and post-processing methods. A wide variety of materials including polymers, metals, and ceramics have been processed successfully with Binder Jet. However, developing printing and post-processing methods that maximize part performance is a remaining challenge. This article presents a broad review of technologies and approaches that have been applied in Binder Jet printing and points towards opportunities for future advancement.

Binder jetting: A review of process, materials, and methods

A critical review of powder-based additive manufacturing of ferrous alloys: Process parameters, microstructure and mechanical properties

Lattice structures, which are also known as architected cellular structures, have been applied in various industrial sectors, owing to their fascinated performances, such as low elastic modulus, high stiffness-to-weight ratio, low thermal expansion coefficient, and large specific surface area. The lattice structures fabricated by conventional manufacturing technologies always involve complicated process control, additional assembly steps, or other uncontrollable factors. Furthermore, limited types of unit cells can be used to construct lattice structures when using conventional processes. Fortunately, additive manufacturing technology, based on a layer-by-layer process from computer-aided design models, demonstrates the unique capability and flexibility and provides an ideal platform in manufacturing complex components like lattice structures, resulting in an effective reduction in the processing time to actual application and minimum of material waste. Therefore, additive manufacturing relieves the constraint of structure design and provides accurate fabrication for lattice structures with good quality. This work systematically presents an overview of conventional manufacturing methods and novel additive manufacturing technologies for metallic lattice structures. Afterward, the design, optimization, a variety of properties, and applications of metallic lattice structures produced by additive manufacturing are elaborated. By summarizing state-of-the-art progress of the additively manufactured metallic lattice structures, limitations and future perspectives are also discussed.

Additive manufacturing of metallic lattice structures: Unconstrained design, accurate fabrication, fascinated performances, and challenges

Binder jet additive manufacturing enables the production of complex components for numerous applications. Binder jetting is the only powder bed additive manufacturing process that is not fusion-based, thus manufactured parts have no residual stresses as opposed to laser-based additive manufacturing processes. Binder jet technology can be adopted for the production of various small and large metallic parts for specific applications, including in the biomedical and energy sectors, at a lower cost and shorter lead time. One of the most well-known types of stainless steels for various industries is 316L, which has been extensively manufactured using binder jet technology. Binder jet manufactured 316L parts have obtained near full density and, in some cases, similar mechanical properties compared to conventionally manufactured parts. This article introduces methods, principles, and applications of binder jetting of SS 316L. Details of binder jetting processes, including powder characteristics (shape and size), binder properties (binder chemistry and droplet formation mechanism), printing process parameters (such as layer thickness, binder saturation, drying time), and post-processing sintering mechanism and densification processes, are carefully reviewed. Furthermore, critical factors in the selection of feedstock, printing parameters, sintering temperature, time, atmosphere, and heating rate of 316L binder jet manufactured parts are highlighted and summarized. Finally, the above-mentioned processing parameters are correlated with final density and mechanical properties of 316L components to establish a guideline on feedstock selection and process parameters optimization to achieve desired density, structure and properties for various applications.

A Review on Binder Jet Additive Manufacturing of 316L Stainless Steel

In this study a novel fabrication method for a radio frequency (RF) ion funnel is presented. RF ion funnels are important devices for focusing ion clouds at low vacuum conditions for mass spectrometry or deposition-related applications. Typically, ion funnels are constructed of stainless steel plate ring electrodes with a decreasing diameter where RF and direct current potentials are applied to the electrodes to focus the ion cloud. The presented novel design is based on a flexible circuit board that serves both as the signal distribution circuit and as the electrodes of the ion funnel. The flexible circuit board is rolled into a 3D printed scaffold to create a funnel shape with ring electrodes formed by the copper electrodes of the flexible circuit board. The design is characterized in direct comparison with a conventional steel-plate electrode design. The discussed results show that the new funnel has similar performance to the conventionally designed funnel despite much lower manufacturing costs. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

High transmission 3D printed flex-PCB-based ion funnel.

The Makecourse-Art is a makerspace designed to promote undergraduate students’ aesthetic design skills as well as functional design skills using an interdisciplinary team approach at the University of South Florida. To overcome the unique challenges of the Makecourse (earlier version) and to maximize students’ design efforts working on an engineering project in the classroom, the Makecourse-Art incorporated a flipped classroom model utilizing two instructional methods with corresponding activities. First, the explicit form of instruction is delivered through asynchronous video lectures/ tutorials, including topics such as Arduino programming, CAD modeling with the Autodesk Maya, Mudbox, and coding skills. Second, interactive team-based classroom activities are offered to students based on student-centered learning theories such as peer-assisted collaborative learning and problem-based learning. In this paper, we present the design case of the Makecourse-Art with detailed descriptions of the components, and explain the key design decisions, obstacles during the design process, and how the challenges were resolved. In addition, we provide step-by-step examples of students’ engineering design experiences with visual images. Sanghoon Park is an assistant professor in the Instructional Technology program at the University of South Florida. His research focuses on the design and development of augmented reality-based mobile learning, 3D printing integration in education, learning motivation, and online learning experience analysis.

/pdf/makecourse-art-design-and-practice-of-a-flipped-engineering-4287pmyah3.pdf

Makecourse-Art: Design and Practice of a Flipped Engineering Makerspace

In today’s schools, teachers must screen and monitor for academic difficulties and are expected to use assessments to guide their instruction. Understanding the assessment of students with dyslexia gives teachers the knowledge to identify which skills need remediation, and the students’ strengths that can help them overcome their challenges. Assessing Dyslexia provides teachers with answers to questions they often have about assessment and is applicable not only to students with dyslexia but to all who struggle with reading. Written in accessible terms throughout, this book offers information on understanding and interpreting psychoeducational reports and approaches on how to better communicate with parents and students regarding this process. By demonstrating how to use testing to guide their teaching, this book describes the why, how and what of assessment and promotes the self-sufficiency of teachers by providing them with a clear rationale for why particular instructional strategies should be used. With encouragement for teachers to reflect on assessment critically and resources to expand their skill knowledge, this book provides a clear path to enhancing teachers’ practice and improving their pupils’ attainment. Assessing Dyslexia serves as a suitable reading for all teachers and represents a move from the "wait to fail" model to a test to teach approach, addressing the questions and anxieties of today’s teachers. 

Assessing Dyslexia

Binder jetting is an additive manufacturing process that produces weak porous parts that are strengthened through sintering and/or infiltration. This article reports on two different methods of preparing fine 316 stainless steel powder and their impact on the final sintered density and dimensions relative to direct printing into <22 micron powder
. The first method uses agglomerates of fine powder. In the second, nylon 12 powders are mixed with the steel powder as a fugitive space holder to increase porosity. Sintered density and sintering shrinkage of agglomerate material are shown to vary with the density of the spread powder bed. Nevertheless, with added nylon, the shrinkage correlates with the shrinkage of the base steel powder, whereas the density depends on the quantity of the nylon. Thus, it is possible to create varied sintered density with compatible shrinkage levels—a key step toward creating binder-jetting systems with spatially controlled porosity.

/pdf/binder-jet-printing-of-fine-stainless-steel-powder-with-3y0ck1bzci.pdf

Binder-Jet Printing of Fine Stainless Steel Powder with Varied Final Density

Electrodynamic ion funnels are used to enhance the transmission of ions in electrospray-based ion injection systems in 0.1 to 30 Torr pressure range. Jet disrupters are commonly employed to prevent droplets and high pressure jets from entering subsequent vacuum regions. This study presents the simulation and testing of an ion funnel containing a jet disrupter using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and SIMION ion trajectory simulations. Traditional modeling approaches have utilized approximations for the bulk fluid flow fields without including the time-varying nature of the turbulent flow present in the system, thus yielding idealized results. In this study, the fluid flow fields are calculated using CFD. In an effort to include time dependence, a random velocity vector, whose magnitude is proportional to the square root of the turbulence kinetic energy, was calculated at each time step and added to the velocity of the background gas. These simulations predicted that the transmitted ion current is effectively modulated by the variation of the jet disrupter voltage. The addition of the random velocity vector produced results that closely matched the experiments. The simulations yielded the dependence of the transmission on the jet disrupter voltage, and the voltage necessary for maximum ion throughput was accurately predicted. In addition, the magnitude of the predicted transmission closely matched that of the experimental results. This modeling approach could be extended to similar ion transport and filtering systems in which the effects of turbulent fluid flow cannot be ignored. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Enhanced simulation of an RF ion funnel including gas turbulence.

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