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The Vegetation of Wisconsin: An Ordination of Plant Communities.

Wildlife management in modern environments has to contend with an inheritance of faunal and landscape changes caused by humans which affect the relationships between predatory and prey species. In both game management for harvesting, and in species preservation, this leads to difficult decisions about whether and how to manage predation.

Predator control by humans is as old as livestock husbandry. The deliberate, often organized, destruction of many mammalian predator species has been a feature of human development in Europe - and later in countries to which Europeans spread - for centuries. Destruction to the point of extinction was practised for a number of reasons (self-protection, protection of domestic stock, protection of wild game, fur, adventure, sport) which were rarely distinguished. Reduction of predator numbers specifically to allow an increased harvest of some game species was mainly a nineteenth century development, while the adoption of predator control to benefit endangered species for their own sake belongs to recent decades.

We review scientific literature relevant to predator control in game management and in conservation. Understanding of the role of predation in prey population dynamics has changed considerably during the last 20 years, and predation is now credited with a much more powerful role than in the past. Increasingly it becomes possible not merely to understand what predator control achieves, but to predict when it might be valuable in management, and what strategy will best achieve the aims.

Examples of conservation problems involving predation illustrate the complexity of decision-making in management. Because of habitat loss, habitat degradation, altered predator communities, or altered predator-prey ratios, predation losses often have increased significance in modern environments.

Novel approaches potentially offer non-lethal ways to manage mammalian predators. However, most are still in an exploratory phase and there have been no unqualified successes. The best tested approach, excluding predators from small areas by fencing, is discussed.

In Britain, predator control to benefit small game populations and allow harvesting has been practised for nearly 200 years, and has undoubtedly played a role in shaping the present-day fauna. Although earlier gamekeeping severely reduced the geographical range of several mammalian (and avian) predator species, nowadays predator control is subject to legal restrictions based on species' conservation status and humaneness. However, illegal persecution of species protected by law remains a persistent and significant conservation problem. The predator species legitimately targeted are successful, common and increasing in the modem environment, while wild populations of gamebirds and many other ground-nesting birds are declining seriously in most areas.

Control of mammalian predators in game management and conservation

We use museum and other collection records to document large and extraordinarily rapid changes in the ranges and relative abundance of nine species of mammals in the northern Great Lakes region (white-footed mice, woodland deer mice, southern red-backed voles, woodland jumping mice, eastern chipmunks, least chipmunks, southern flying squirrels, northern flying squirrels, common opossums). These species reach either the southern or the northern limit of their distributions in this region. Changes consistently reflect increases in species of primarily southern distribution (white-footed mice, eastern chipmunks, southern flying squirrels, common opossums) and declines by northern species (woodland deer mice, southern red-backed voles, woodland jumping mice, least chipmunks, northern flying squirrels). White-footed mice and southern flying squirrels have extended their ranges over 225 km since 1980, and at particularly well-studied sites in Michigan's Upper Peninsula, small mammal assemblages have shifted from numerical domination by northern species to domination by southern species. Repeated resampling at some sites suggests that southern species are replacing northern ones rather than simply being added to the fauna. Observed changes are consistent with predictions from climatic warming but not with predictions based on recovery from logging or changes in human populations. Because of the abundance of these focal species (the eight rodent species make up 96.5% of capture records of all forest-dwelling rodents in the region and 70% of capture records of all forest-dwelling small mammals) and the dominating ecological roles they play, these changes substantially affect the composition and structure of forest communities. They also provide an unusually clear example of change that is likely to be the result of climatic warming in communities that are experienced by large numbers of people.

/pdf/climate-induced-changes-in-the-small-mammal-communities-of-3hjpqcymcz.pdf

Climate-induced changes in the small mammal communities of the Northern Great Lakes Region

There is now unequivocal evidence for global climate change; however, its potential impacts on evolutionary processes remain unclear. Many species have responded to contemporary climate change through shifts in their geographic range. This could lead to increased sympatry between recently diverged species; likely increasing the potential for hybridization. Recently, following a series of warm winters, southern flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans) in Ontario, Canada rapidly expanded their northern range limit resulting in increased sympatry with the closely related northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus). This provided the opportunity to test the prediction that contemporary climate change can act as a catalyst creating conditions for the formation of hybrid zones. Following extensive sampling and molecular analyses (nuclear and mitochondrial DNA), we identified the occurrence of hybridization between sympatric G. sabrinus and G. volans .T here was evidence of backcrossing but not of extensive introgession, consistent with the hypothesis of recent rather than historic hybridization. To our knowledge, this is the first report of hybrid zone formation following a range expansion induced by contemporary climate change. This is also the first report of hybridization between North American flying squirrel species.

Climate change induced hybridization in flying squirrels

Mammals of Wisconsin.

Determining habitat associations of small mammal species and environmental characteristics important for site occupancy are central to understanding species biology and community organization. Most studies of small mammal communities are done at a local scale and in 1 habitat, overlooking patterns manifest over a heterogeneous landscape. During the summers of 2009 and 2010 we trapped small mammals throughout Wisconsin at 180 sites among 13 natural habitats, capturing 3,261 individuals of 23 taxa. We modeled site occupancy using habitat characteristics for 16 taxa while incorporating imperfect detection and compared small mammal community similarity among habitats. Site variation in tree density, soil moisture regimes, and winter temperatures were the most important variables in describing occupancy of species. With the exception of Zapus hudsonius and Sorex hoyi, occupancy rates of species were not the same across habitats. Species-specific responses to habitat characteristics created distinct na...

https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-mammalogy/volume-95/issue-2/13-MAMM-A-025/Habitat-associations-and-assemblages-of-small-mammals-in-natural-plant/10.1644/13-MAMM-A-025.pdf

Habitat associations and assemblages of small mammals in natural plant communities of Wisconsin

Within North America, northern (Glaucomys sabrinus) and southern (Glaucomys volans) flying squirrels occupy distinct ranges with limited overlap. Sympatry in northern latitudes coincides with northern hardwood vegetation from Minnesota to New England. Strongyloides robustus is an intestinal parasite that infects both species but appears to be deleterious only to northern flying squirrels. As a result, S. robustus could be a critical determinant of flying squirrel population characteristics in at least some areas of sympatry. However, cold weather could potentially limit the distribution of S. robustus in northern climates. Therefore, we assessed fecal samples from both flying squirrel species to determine the presence of the nematode in Wisconsin. Strongyloides robustus was found in 12 flying squirrel scat samples and infected 52% of southern flying squirrels and 11% of northern flying squirrels. Prevalence of S. robustus infection for northern flying squirrels was substantially lower than previously reported from more southern regions. This is the northernmost documentation of S. robustus in flying squirrels and the first documentation of S. robustus parasitizing flying squirrels in Wisconsin.

/pdf/strongyloides-robustus-and-the-northern-sympatric-183ejnkqv9.pdf

Strongyloides robustus and the Northern Sympatric Populations of Northern (Glaucomys sabrinus) and Southern (G. volans) Flying Squirrels

Range Shift By a Female Bobcat (Lynx rufus) After Removal of Neighboring Female

Since its inception in the late 1950's, radiotelemetry has been used to study various life history characteristics of numerous species. Typically, researchers interpret radio signals from transmitters, estimate bearings to transmitters with directional antennas and compasses, and determine transmitter locations via triangulation (Heezen and Tester 1967, Mech 1983, White and Garrott 1990). Others have discussed sources of error affecting signal interpretation and the accuracy of animal locations derived from radio-telemetry data (Slade et al. 1965, Heezen and Tester 1967, Tester 1971, Springer 1979, Hupp and Ratti 1983, Mech 1983, Lee et al. 1985, Garrott et al. 1986, White and Garrott 1986, Schmutz and White 1990, White and Garrott 1990). Springer (1979) proposed that deviations from a transmitter location, xi, for the ith triangulation reading be expressed as:

An evaluation of electronic versus hand-held compasses for telemetry studies

. We estimated annual home ranges and core areas of black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) in Conata Basin, South Dakota, by collecting 834 locations of 28 ferrets (20 females, 8 males) through spotlighting from October 1997 to September 2000. Area-per-observation curves showed that a minimum of 23 locations were needed to estimate fixed-kernel home-range size. Mean 95% and 50% fixed-kernel annual home-range sizes of females (95%: 64.7 ha, SE = 11.6; 50%: 12.7 ha, SE = 3.0) were significantly smaller and less variable than those of males (95%: 131.8 ha, SE = 40.3; 50%: 35.6 ha, SE = 16.5). Minimum convex polygon home-range estimates also differed between females (41.9 ha, SE = 6.5 ha) and males (86.3 ha, SE = 21.3). Females' ranges were consistently less variable than males' ranges, regardless of the home-range estimator used. Female home-range size was negatively related to male density (r 2 = 0.433), and male home-range size was positively associated with age (r 2 = 0.671). Intersexual overlap ...

/pdf/black-footed-ferret-home-ranges-in-conata-basin-south-dakota-56dd5czbt4.pdf

Black-footed ferret home ranges in Conata Basin, South Dakota

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