Here is a monumental work that continues in the tradition pioneered by co-author Richard Lazarus in his classic book Psychological Stress and the Coping Process. Dr. Lazarus and his collaborator, Dr. Susan Folkman, present here a detailed theory of psychological stress, building on the concepts of cognitive appraisal and coping which have become major themes of theory and investigation. As an integrative theoretical analysis, this volume pulls together two decades of research and thought on issues in behavioral medicine, emotion, stress management, treatment, and life span development. A selective review of the most pertinent literature is included in each chapter. The total reference listing for the book extends to 60 pages. This work is necessarily multidisciplinary, reflecting the many dimensions of stress-related problems and their situation within a complex social context. While the emphasis is on psychological aspects of stress, the book is oriented towards professionals in various disciplines, as well as advanced students and educated laypersons. The intended audience ranges from psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, nurses, and social workers to sociologists, anthropologists, medical researchers, and physiologists.

Stress, appraisal, and coping

This paper presents evidence from three samples, two of college students and one of participants in a community smoking-cessation program, for the reliability and validity of a 14-item instrument, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), designed to measure the degree to which situations in one's life are appraised as stressful. The PSS showed adequate reliability and, as predicted, was correlated with life-event scores, depressive and physical symptomatology, utilization of health services, social anxiety, and smoking-reduction maintenance. In all comparisons, the PSS was a better predictor of the outcome in question than were life-event scores. When compared to a depressive symptomatology scale, the PSS was found to measure a different and independently predictive construct. Additional data indicate adequate reliability and validity of a four-item version of the PSS for telephone interviews. The PSS is suggested for examining the role of nonspecific appraised stress in the etiology of disease and behavioral disorders and as an outcome measure of experienced levels of stress.

/pdf/a-global-measure-of-perceived-stress-3tkin3w070.pdf

A global measure of perceived stress.

Examines whether the positive association between social support and well-being is attributable more to an overall beneficial effect of support (main- or direct-effect model) or to a process of support protecting persons from potentially adverse effects of stressful events (buffering model). The review of studies is organized according to (1) whether a measure assesses support structure (the existence of relationships) or function (the extent to which one's interpersonal relationships provide particular resources) and (2) the degree of specificity (vs globality) of the scale. Special attention is given to methodological characteristics that are requisite for a fair comparison of the models. It is concluded that there is evidence consistent with both models. Evidence for the buffering model is found when the social support measure assesses the perceived availability of interpersonal resources that are responsive to the needs elicited by stressful events. Evidence for a main effect model is found when the support measure assesses a person's degree of integration in a large social network. Both conceptualizations of social support are correct in some respects, but each represents a different process through which social support may affect well-being. Implications for theories of social support processes and for the design of preventive interventions are discussed.

/pdf/stress-social-support-and-the-buffering-hypothesis-37b7abjbst.pdf

Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis.

This paper reviews the origins and definitions of social capital in the writings of Bourdieu, Loury, and Coleman, among other authors. It distinguishes four sources of social capital and examines their dynamics. Applications of the concept in the sociological literature emphasize its role in social control, in family support, and in benefits mediated by extrafamilial networks. I provide examples of each of these positive functions. Negative consequences of the same processes also deserve attention for a balanced picture of the forces at play. I review four such consequences and illustrate them with relevant examples. Recent writings on social capital have extended the concept from an individual asset to a feature of communities and even nations. The final sections describe this conceptual stretch and examine its limitations. I argue that, as shorthand for the positive consequences of sociability, social capital has a definite place in sociological theory. However, excessive extensions of the concept may j...

/pdf/social-capital-its-origins-and-applications-in-modern-1u65djoshv.pdf

Social Capital: Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology

We developed a multidimensional coping inventory to assess the different ways in which people respond to stress. Five scales (of four items each) measure conceptually distinct aspects of problem-focused coping (active coping, planning, suppression of competing activities, restraint coping, seeking of instrumental social support); five scales measure aspects of what might be viewed as emotional-focused coping (seeking of emotional social support, positive reinterpretation, acceptance, denial, turning to religion); and three scales measure coping responses that arguably are less useful (focus on and venting of emotions, behavioral disengagement, mental disengagement). Study 1 reports the development of scale items. Study 2 reports correlations between the various coping scales and several theoretically relevant personality measures in an effort to provide preliminary information about the inventory's convergent and discriminant validity. Study 3 uses the inventory to assess coping responses among a group of undergraduates who were attempting to cope with a specific stressful episode. This study also allowed an initial examination of associations between dispositional and situational coping tendencies.

Assessing Coping Strategies: A Theoretically Based Approach

This study uses longitudinal data to observe how life events, chronic life strains, self concepts, coping, and social supports come together to form a process of stress. It takes involuntary job disruptions as illustrating life events and shows how they adversely affect enduring role strains, economic strains in particular. These exacerbated strains, in turn, erode positive concepts of self, such as self-esteem and mastery. The diminished self-concepts then leave one especially vulnerable to experiencing symptoms of stress, of which depression is of special interest to this analysis. The interventions of coping and social supports are mainly indirect; that is, they do not act directly to buffer depression. Instead, they minimize the elevation of depression by dampening the antecedent process.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2136676.pdf

The stress process.

This study investigates change in children's home environments as a function of change in parental occupational and family conditions. It uses data from the 1986 and I988 mother-child supplements to the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) on 1,403 mothers with children aged 3 through 6 in 1986 to estimate mulivariate regression equations predicting changes in home environments as a function of intervening occupational and family changes. All analyses control for parents' background and education, maternal ethnicity, child gender, and child health. The birth of additional children, marital termination, and mother remaining unmarried have generally negative effects on children's home environments. The effect of mothers' beginning employment varies depending on the occupational complexity of her employment: Beginning a job that is low in complexity is associated with worsening home environments. The generally negative effect of remaining unmarried also varies depending on mothers' employment status and the quality of employment, being more positive for mothers employed at higher wages and more negative for mothers who remain without employment. Children's immediate family environments are a potent source of both cognitive stimulation and affective experience, and have important consequences both for children's later cognitive skills and academic achievement (Bradley, 1985; Bradley & Caldwell, 1987; Bradley, Caldwell, & Rock, 1988; Ketterlinus, Henderson, & Lamb, 1991; Parcel & Menaghan, 1990) and for their emotional well-being and behavior problems (Rogers, Parcel, & Menaghan, 1991). Indeed, the quality of parent-child relations and the quality of the home environment that parents provide are important means by which parents' social experiences and position affect their children's life chances (Dubow & Luster, 1990; Ketterlinus et al., 1991; Menaghan & Parcel, 1990; Rogers et al., 1991). It is important to consider how parents' ability to provide optimal home environments may shift over time as a function of parents' changing occupational and family circumstances. Bronfenbrenner (1986) noted that studies of human development have focused on how family environments affect children, with relatively less attention to consideration of the extrafamilial influences on parents' capacity to foster their children's development. Studies in the psychological and educational literatures have emphasized the effects of stable maternal attributes on home environments, particularly mothers' educational attainment, IQ, and ethnicity, as well as family composition, particularly father presence and family size (Bradley, 1985; Bradley, Caldwell, & Rock, 1988). This emphasis implies that the quality of home environments will be relatively stable over time, with relatively disadvantaged families persisting in providing suboptimal home environments and vice versa. But evidence for this assumption of stability is meager: Bradley and Caldwell (1987) characterized the quality of home environments as only "moderately stable" through the first few years, and also reported that stability varied for differing groups of children and was lower for non-Whites and for boys. We identify several sources of potential change in the quality of home environments, especially for very young parents and children. For many families, children's early years are punctuated by multiple changes both in their parents' work lives and in their family composition; Namboodiri (1987) referred to early adulthood as "the floundering phase of the life course." Young parents are apt to make multiple changes in employers and job demands during their early work lives, often interspersed by periods of unemployment or underemployment (see also Rindfuss, Swicegood, & Rosenfeld, 1987). The likelihood of such changes is likely to be especially great for young parents with fewer resources and less favorable attributes. …

Social sources of change in children's home environments: The effects of parental occupational experiences and family conditions.

Until recently little theoretical or empirical attention has focused on the ways in which socially structured experiences in the workplace affect the interactions that occur within families This review considers the many levels at which family interaction is currently being studied, presents arguments regarding expected relationships between aspects of workplace experiences and spousal and parent-child interaction, and summarizes the relatively small body of empirical research that links occupation and family interaction It emphasizes the extent to which emotional consequences of work mediate the effect of workplace conditions on family interaction The chapter reviews evidence suggesting that a variety of workplace conditions—restriction of opportunity to exercise self-direction, work overload, poor quality of interpersonal relations on the job, low opportunity for cooperative problemsolving, job insecurities, job loss, and low earnings—have emotional repercussions that have negative implications for f

Work Experiences and Family Interaction Processes: The Long Reach of the Job?

We argue that social capital which inheres in the relationships between parents and children should be associated with internalisation of social norms in children. Changes in parental working conditions and family circumstances should affect children's social adjustment because such factors affect the formation and use of social capital in families. We study variations in children's behavior problems in a sample of 524 6-8 year old children in married couple families in 1988 derived from the National Longitudinal Survey's Youth Cohort study of mothers and children. We find that higher levels of mothers' mastery and more positive home environments protect children against behavior problems

Family social capital and children's behavior problems.

Individual Coping Efforts and Family Studies

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