Context-Free Path Querying (CFPQ) allows one to use context-free grammars as path constraints in navigational graph queries. Many algorithms for CFPQ were proposed but recently showed that the state-of-the-art CFPQ algorithms are still not performant enough for practical use. One promising way to achieve high-performance solutions for graph querying problems is to reduce them to linear algebra operations. Recently, there are two CFPQ solutions formulated in terms of linear algebra: the one based on the Boolean matrix multiplication operation proposed by Azimov et al. (2018) and the Kronecker product-based CFPQ algorithm proposed by Orachev et al. (2020). However, the algorithm based on matrix multiplication still does not support the most expressive all-path query semantics and cannot be truly compared with Kronecker product-based CFPQ algorithm. In this work, we introduce a new matrix-based CFPQ algorithm with all-path query semantics that allows us to extract all found paths for each pair of vertices. Also, we implement our algorithm by using appropriate high-performance libraries for linear algebra. Finally, we provide a comparison of the most performant linear algebra-based CFPQ algorithms for different query semantics.

Context-Free Path Querying with Single-Path Semantics by Matrix Multiplication

Context-free path queries (CFPQ) extend the regular path queries (RPQ) by allowing context-free grammars to be used as constraints for paths. Algorithms for CFPQ are actively developed, but J. Kuijpers et al. have recently concluded, that existing algorithms are not performant enough to be used in real-world applications. Thus the development of new algorithms for CFPQ is justified. In this paper, we provide a new CFPQ algorithm which is based on such linear algebra operations as Kronecker product and transitive closure and handles grammars presented as recursive state machines. Thus, the proposed algorithm can be implemented by using high-performance libraries and modern parallel hardware. Moreover, it avoids grammar growth which provides the possibility for queries optimization.

Context-Free Path Querying by Kronecker Product

Context-free path querying (CFPQ) widely used for graph-structured data analysis in different areas. It is crucial to develop highly efficient algorithms for CFPQ since the size of the input data is typically large. We show how to reduce GFPQ evaluation to solving systems of matrix equations over R --- a problem for which there exist high-performance solutions. Also, we demonstrate the applicability of our approach to real-world data analysis.

Context-Free Path Querying via Matrix Equations

Code summarization aims to generate short functional descriptions for source code to facilitate code comprehension. While Information Retrieval (IR) approaches that leverage similar code snippets and corresponding summaries have led the early research, Deep Learning (DL) approaches that use neural models to capture statistical properties between code and summaries are now mainstream. Although some preliminary studies suggest that IR approaches are more effective in some cases, it is currently unclear how effective the existing approaches can be in general, where and why IR/DL approaches perform better, and whether the integration of IR and DL can achieve better performance. Consequently, there is an urgent need for a comprehensive study of the IR and DL code summarization approaches to provide guidance for future development in this area. This paper presents the first large-scale empirical study of 18 IR, DL, and hybrid code summarization approaches on five benchmark datasets. We extensively compare different types of approaches using automatic metrics, we conduct quantitative and qualitative analyses of where and why IR and DL approaches perform better, respectively, and we also study hybrid approaches for assessing the effectiveness of integrating IR and DL. The study shows that the performance of IR approaches should not be underestimated, that while DL models perform better in predicting tokens from method signatures and capturing structural similarities in code, simple IR approaches tend to perform better in the presence of code with high similarity or long reference summaries, and that existing hybrid approaches do not perform as well as individual approaches in their respective areas of strength. Based on our findings, we discuss future research directions for better code summarization.

Deep is Better? An Empirical Comparison of Information Retrieval and Deep Learning Approaches to Code Summarization

RDF (Resource Description Framework) is a standard language to represent graph databases. Query languages for RDF databases usually include primitives to support path queries, linking pairs of vertices of the graph that are connected by a path of labels belonging to a given language. Languages such as SPARQL include support for paths defined by regular languages (by means of Regular Expressions). A context-free path query is a path query whose language can be defined by a context-free grammar. Context-free path queries can be used to implement queries such as the "same generation queries", that are not expressible by Regular Expressions. In this paper, we present a novel algorithm for context-free path query processing. We prove the correctness of our approach and show its run-time and memory complexity. We show the viability of our approach by means of a prototype implemented in Go. We run our prototype using the same cases of study as proposed in recent works, comparing our results with another, recently published algorithm. The experiments include both synthetic and real RDF databases. Our algorithm can be seen as a step forward, towards the implementation of more expressive query languages.

pdf/an-algorithm-for-context-free-path-queries-over-graph-28dqrcw2gf.pdf

An Algorithm for Context-Free Path Queries over Graph Databases

Recently proposed matrix multiplication based algorithm for context-free path querying (CFPQ) offloads the most performance-critical parts onto boolean matrices multiplication. Thus, it is possible to achieve high performance of CFPQ by means of modern parallel hardware and software. In this paper, we provide results of empirical performance comparison of different implementations of this algorithm on both real-world data and synthetic data for the worst cases.

Evaluation of the Context-Free Path Querying Algorithm Based on Matrix Multiplication

Code clones are pairs of code snippets that implement similar functionality. Clone detection is a fundamental branch of automatic source code comprehension, having many applications in refactoring recommendation, plagiarism detection, and code summarization. A particularly interesting case of clone detection is the detection of semantic clones, i.e., code snippets that have the same functionality but significantly differ in implementation. A promising approach to detecting semantic clones is contrastive learning (CL), a machine learning paradigm popular in computer vision but not yet commonly adopted for code processing. Our work aims to evaluate the most popular CL algorithms combined with three source code representations on two tasks. The first task is code clone detection, which we evaluate on the POJ-104 dataset containing implementations of 104 algorithms. The second task is plagiarism detection. To evaluate the models on this task, we introduce CodeTransformator, a tool for transforming source code. We use it to create a dataset that mimics plagiarised code based on competitive programming solutions. We trained nine models for both tasks and compared them with six existing approaches, including traditional tools and modern pre-trained neural models. The results of our evaluation show that proposed models perform diversely in each task, however the performance of the graph-based models is generally above the others. Among CL algorithms, SimCLR and SwAV lead to better results, while Moco is the most robust approach. Our code and trained models are available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6360627, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5596345.

Evaluation of Contrastive Learning with Various Code Representations for Code Clone Detection

Machine Learning for Software Engineering (ML4SE) is an actively growing research area that focuses on methods that help programmers in their work. In order to apply the developed methods in practice, they need to achieve reasonable quality in order to help rather than distract developers. While the development of new approaches to code representation and data collection improves the overall quality of the models, it does not take into account the information that we can get from the project at hand. In this work, we investigate how the model's quality can be improved if we target a specific project. We develop a framework to assess quality improvements that models can get after fine-tuning for the method name prediction task on a particular project. We evaluate three models of different complexity and compare their quality in three settings: trained on a large dataset of Java projects, further fine-tuned on the data from a particular project, and trained from scratch on this data. We show that per-project fine-tuning can greatly improve the models' quality as they capture the project's domain and naming conventions. We open-source the tool we used for data collection, as well as the code to run the experiments: https://zenodo.org/record/6040745.

Assessing Project-Level Fine-Tuning of ML4SE Models

As researchers and practitioners apply Machine Learning to in-creasingly more software engineering problems, the approaches they use become more sophisticated. A lot of modern approaches utilize internal code structure in the form of an abstract syntax tree (AST) or its extensions: path-based representation, complex graph combining AST with additional edges. Even though the process of extracting ASTs from code can be done with different parsers, the impact of choosing a parser on the final model quality remains unstudied. Moreover, researchers often omit the exact details of extracting particular code representations. In this work, we evaluate two models, namely Code2Seq and TreeLSTM, in the method name prediction task backed by eight different parsers for the Java language. To unify the process of data preparation with different parsers, we develop SuperParser , a multi-language parser-agnostic library based on PathMiner. SuperParser facilitates the end-to-end creation of datasets suitable for training and evaluation of ML models that work with structural information from source code. Our results demonstrate that trees built by different parsers vary in their structure and content. We then analyze how this diversity affects the models’ quality and show that the quality gap between the most and least suitable parsers for both models turns out to be significant. Finally, we discuss other features of the parsers that researchers and practitioners should take into account when selecting a parser along with the impact on the models’ quality. SuperParser use

Evaluating the Impact of Source Code Parsers on ML4SE Models

Provided are systems and methods for single image-based body animation. An example method includes receiving a input image, the input image including a body of a person, segmenting the input image into a body portion and a background portion, wherein the body portion includes pixels corresponding to the body of the person, fitting a model to the body portion, wherein the model is configured to receive pose parameters representing a pose of the body and generate an output image including an image of the body adopting the pose, receiving a series of further pose parameters, each of the series of further pose parameters representing one of further poses of the body, providing each of the series of further pose parameters to the model to generate a series of output images of the body adopting the further poses, and generating, based on the series of output images, an output video.

Single image-based real-time body animation

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