Introduction. General Nutrient and Energy Requirements. Protein. Water. Minerals. Vitamins. Essential Fatty Acids. Energy Requirements for Maintenance. Protein Requirements for Maintenance. Reproductive Costs. Productive Costs. Food Composition. Gastrointestinal Anatomy and Function. Digestion and Nutrient Metabolism. Food Intake Regulation. Computer Models of the Nutritional Interaction. Index.

Wildlife feeding and nutrition.

Background: Human disturbance can influence wildlife behaviour, which can have implications for wildlife populations. For example, wildlife may be more vigilant near human disturbance, resulting in decreased forage intake and reduced reproductive success. We measured the effects of human activities compared to predator and other environmental factors on the behaviour of elk (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus 1758) in a human-dominated landscape in Alberta, Canada. Methodology/Principal Findings: We collected year-round behavioural data of elk across a range of human disturbances. We estimated linear mixed models of elk behaviour and found that human factors (land-use type, traffic and distance from roads) and elk herd size accounted for more than 80% of variability in elk vigilance. Elk decreased their feeding time when closer to roads, and road traffic volumes of at least 1 vehicle every 2 hours induced elk to switch into a more vigilant behavioural mode with a subsequent loss in feeding time. Other environmental factors, thought crucial in shaping vigilance behaviour in elk (natural predators, reproductive status of females), were not important. The highest levels of vigilance were recorded on public lands where hunting and motorized recreational activities were cumulative compared to the national park during summer, which had the lowest levels of vigilance. Conclusions/Significance: In a human-dominated landscape, effects of human disturbance on elk behaviour exceed those of habitat and natural predators. Humans trigger increased vigilance and decreased foraging in elk. However, it is not just the number of people but also the type of human activity that influences elk behaviour (e.g. hiking vs. hunting). Quantifying the actual fitness costs of human disturbance remains a challenge in field studies but should be a primary focus for future researches. Some species are much more likely to be disturbed by humans than by non-human predators: for these species, quantifying human disturbance may be the highest priority for conservation.

/pdf/effects-of-humans-on-behaviour-of-wildlife-exceed-those-of-1c8i3rfhnu.pdf

Effects of Humans on Behaviour of Wildlife Exceed Those of Natural Predators in a Landscape of Fear

African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are imperiled by poaching and habitat loss. Despite global attention to the plight of elephants, their population sizes and trends are uncertain or unknown over much of Africa. To conserve this iconic species, conservationists need timely, accurate data on elephant populations. Here, we report the results of the Great Elephant Census (GEC), the first continent-wide, standardized survey of African savannah elephants. We also provide the first quantitative model of elephant population trends across Africa. We estimated a population of 352,271 savannah elephants on study sites in 18 countries, representing approximately 93% of all savannah elephants in those countries. Elephant populations in survey areas with historical data decreased by an estimated 144,000 from 2007 to 2014, and populations are currently shrinking by 8% per year continent-wide, primarily due to poaching. Though 84% of elephants occurred in protected areas, many protected areas had carcass ratios that indicated high levels of elephant mortality. Results of the GEC show the necessity of action to end the African elephants' downward trajectory by preventing poaching and protecting habitat.

/pdf/continent-wide-survey-reveals-massive-decline-in-african-4iczxm5s0w.pdf

Continent-wide survey reveals massive decline in African savannah elephants.

Fear of predation can have major impacts on the behaviour of prey species. Recently the concept of the ecology of fear has been defined and formalised; yet there has been relatively little focus on how these ideas apply to large carnivore species which, although not prey sensu stricto, also experience fear as a result of threats from humans. Large carnivores are likely also subject to a Landscape of Fear similar to that described for prey species. We argue that although fear is generic, ‘human-caused mortality’ represents a distinct and very important cause of fear for large carnivores, particularly terrestrial large carnivores as their activities overlap with those of humans to a greater degree. We introduce the idea of a ‘Landscape of Coexistence’ for large carnivores to denote a subset of the Landscape of Fear where sufficient areas of low human-caused mortality risk are present in the landscape for long term coexistence of large carnivores and humans. We then explore aspects of terrestrial large carnivore behavioural ecology that may be best explained by risk of human-caused mortality, and how the nature of a Landscape of Coexistence for these large carnivores is likely to be shaped by specific factors such as habitat structure, wild and domestic prey base, and human distribution and behaviour. The human characteristics of this Landscape of Coexistence may be as important in determining large carnivore distribution and behavioural ecology as the distribution of resources. Understanding the Landscape of Coexistence for terrestrial large carnivores is therefore important for their biology and conservation throughout large parts of their remaining ranges.




Synthesis



The Landscape of Fear concept describing the relationship between predator and prey also applies to the relationship between humans and top carnivores. We synthesise current research to introduce the Landscape of Coexistence concept, arguing that top predators respond to the risks of human-caused mortality through spatiotemporal partitioning of activities to reduce contact with people. The character of the Landscape of Coexistence may be more important than the distribution of resources in determining large carnivore distribution and behavioural ecology in human dominated landscapes. Understanding their behavioural responses to human threats is crucial to successful conservation of large carnivores.

Landscapes of Coexistence for terrestrial carnivores: the ecological consequences of being downgraded from ultimate to penultimate predator by humans

The bushmeat and food security nexus: A global account of the contributions, conundrums and ethical collisions

The predator–prey space game and the costs associated with risk effects are affected by prey 1) proactive adjustments (when prey modify their behaviour in response to an a priori assessment of the risk level) and 2) reactive adjustments (when prey have detected an immediate threat). Proactive adjustments are generally well-studied, whereas the frequency, strength and duration of reactive adjustments remain largely unknown. We studied the space use and habitat selection of GPS-collared zebras Equus quagga from 2 to 48 h after an encounter with lions Panthera leo. Lion–zebra encounters generally occurred close to artificial waterholes (< 1 km). Two hours after an encounter, zebras were more likely to have fled than stay when the encounter occurred in more risky bushy areas. During their flight, zebras selected grasslands more than usual, getting great visibility. Regardless of their initial response, zebras finally fled at the end of the night and reached areas located far from waterholes where encounters with lions are less frequent. The large-scale flights (∼4–5 km) of zebras led to a local zebra depression for lions. Zebras that had fled immediately after the encounter resumed their behaviour of coming close to waterholes on the following day. However, zebras that had initially stayed remained far from waterholes for an extra 24 h, remaining an elusive prey for longer. The delay in the flight decision had different short-term consequences on the lion–zebra game. We reveal that the spatial context of the encounter shapes the immediate response of prey, and that encountering predators induces strong behavioural responses: prey flee towards distant, safer, areas and have a constrained use of key resource areas which are at the heart of the predator–prey game at larger spatio-temporal scales. Nighttime encounters were infrequent (once every 35 days on average), zebra responses were short-lived (< 36 h) but occurred over a large spatial scale (several km).

/pdf/reactive-responses-of-zebras-to-lion-encounters-shape-their-3kggeyiq5d.pdf

Reactive responses of zebras to lion encounters shape their predator–prey space game at large scale

Most organisms need to acquire various resources to survive and reproduce. Individuals should adjust their behavior to make optimal use of the landscape and limit the costs of trade-offs emerging from the use of these resources. Here we study how African elephants Loxodonta africana travel to foraging places between regular visits to waterholes. Elephant herds were tracked using GPS collars during two consecutive dry seasons in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. We segmented each individual movement track at each visit to water to define foraging trips, and then used trip-level statistics to build an understanding of movement strategies. Travel speed within these individually-consistent movement bouts was also analyzed to understand if speed was better linked to distance to water or progression in the trip over time. We found that elephants went further from water when drinking less often, which could result from a trade-off between drinking and foraging in less depleted, far from water, places. Speed increased towards the beginning and the end of the trips, and was also greater than observed during the wet season, suggesting that elephants were trying to save time. Numerous short trips traveled at greater speed, particularly when commuting to a different waterhole, was tentatively explained by the inability to drink at specific waterholes due to intra-specific interference. Unexpectedly elephants did not always minimize travel time by drinking at the closest waterhole, but the extra distance traveled remained never more than a few kilometers. Our results show how individuals may adjust movement behavior to deal with resource trade-offs at the landscape scale. We also highlight how behavioral context, here progression in the trip, may be more important than spatial context, here distance to water, in explaining animal movement patterns.

/pdf/african-elephants-adjust-speed-in-response-to-surface-water-1tkqqx8c7z.pdf

African Elephants Adjust Speed in Response to Surface-Water Constraint on Foraging during the Dry-Season

Hwange National Park (NP) is the largest national park in Zimbabwe. Covering 14,651 km2, it is located between 18°30′–19°50′S and 25°45′–27°30′E. Hwange NP is characterized by semi-arid conditions with an annual mean rainfall of about 634 mm (Hubbard and Haynes 2012). It has more than 100 mammal species, 19 of which are large herbivores and 8, large carnivores, and more than 400 bird species (ZPWMA 2012). Hwange NP is largely dominated and characterized by deep Kalahari sands (Rogers 1993) and has no perennial river system. Water-dependent animals rely on pumped water boreholes; the first boreholes were drilled in the 1930s (Mukwashi et al. 2012) and now over 80 boreholes are known to exist in the park. During 2013, media reports of elephant (Loxodonta africana) deaths in Hwange NP due to chemical poisoning sent shock waves across the conservation field. Media framing of the incident portrayed different figures of elephant deaths and manner of poisoning. For example, the headline of The Telegraph of 20 October 2013 read ‘Poachers kill 300 Zimbabwe elephants with cyanide’, the International Business Times of 21 October 2013 also reported more than 300 elephant deaths, while the Zimbabwe Standard of 20 October 2013 reported over 500 elephant deaths. Still others reported different figures. This article reports the first attempt at a rigorous and systematic study of chemical poisoning of wildlife in Hwange NP prompted by the 2013 cyanide poisoning of elephant and other animal species. The objectives of the study were to: 1) identify the species and quantify the animals affected by cyanide poisoning in Hwange NP and its environs, and 2) assess the opinions of Cyanide poisoning and African elephant mortality in Hwange

Cyanide poisoning and African elephant mortality in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe: A preliminary assessment

Vigilance allows individuals to escape from predators, but it also reduces time for other activities which determine fitness, in particular resource acquisition. The principles determining how prey trade time between the detection of predators and food acquisition are not fully understood, particularly in herbivores because of many potential confounding factors (such as group size), and the ability of these animals to be vigilant while handling food. We designed a fertilization experiment to manipulate the quality of resources, and compared awareness (distinguishing apprehensive foraging and vigilance) of wild impalas (Aepyceros melampus) foraging on patches of different grass height and quality in a wilderness area with a full community of predators. While handling food, these animals can allocate time to other functions. The impalas were aware of their environment less often when on good food patches and when the grass was short. The animals spent more time in apprehensive foraging when grass was tall, and no other variable affected apprehensive behavior. The probability of exhibiting a vigilance posture decreased with group size. The interaction between grass height and patch enrichment also affected the time spent in vigilance, suggesting that resource quality was the main driver when visibility is good, and the risk of predation the main driver when the risk is high. We discuss various possible mechanisms underlying the perception of predation risk: foraging strategy, opportunities for scrounging, and interindividual interference. Overall, this experiment shows that improving patch quality modifies the trade-off between vigilance and foraging in favor of feeding, but vigilance remains ultimately driven by the visibility of predators by foragers within their feeding patches.

Detecting predators and locating competitors while foraging: an experimental study of a medium-sized herbivore in an African savanna.

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Reactive responses of zebras to lion encounters shape their predator–prey space game at large scale

African Elephants Adjust Speed in Response to Surface-Water Constraint on Foraging during the Dry-Season

Cyanide poisoning and African elephant mortality in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe: A preliminary assessment

Detecting predators and locating competitors while foraging: an experimental study of a medium-sized herbivore in an African savanna.