Climate change and livestock: Impacts, adaptation, and mitigation

Effects of climate changes on animal production and sustainability of livestock systems

Ruminant production is under increased public scrutiny in terms of the importance of cattle and other ruminants as major producers of the greenhouse gas methane. Methanogenesis is performed by methanogenic archaea, a specialised group of microbes present in several anaerobic environments including the rumen. In the rumen, methanogens utilise predominantly H2 and CO2 as substrates to produce methane, filling an important functional niche in the ecosystem. However, in addition to methanogens, other microbes also have an influence on methane production either because they are involved in hydrogen (H2) metabolism or because they affect the numbers of methanogens or other members of the microbiota. This study explores the relationship between some of these microbes and methanogenesis and highlights some functional groups that could play a role in decreasing methane emissions. Dihydrogen (‘H2’ from this point on) is the key element that drives methane production in the rumen. Among H2 producers, protozoa have a prominent position, which is strengthened by their close physical association with methanogens, which favours H2 transfer from one to the other. A strong positive interaction was found between protozoal numbers and methane emissions, and because this group is possibly not essential for rumen function, protozoa might be a target for methane mitigation. An important function that is associated with production of H2 is the degradation of fibrous plant material. However, not all members of the rumen fibrolytic community produce H2. Increasing the proportion of non-H2 producing fibrolytic microorganisms might decrease methane production without affecting forage degradability. Alternative pathways that use electron acceptors other than CO2 to oxidise H2 also exist in the rumen. Bacteria with this type of metabolism normally occupy a distinct ecological niche and are not dominant members of the microbiota; however, their numbers can increase if the right potential electron acceptor is present in the diet. Nitrate is an alternative electron sinks that can promote the growth of particular bacteria able to compete with methanogens. Because of the toxicity of the intermediate product, nitrite, the use of nitrate has not been fully explored, but in adapted animals, nitrite does not accumulate and nitrate supplementation may be an alternative under some dietary conditions that deserves to be further studied. In conclusion, methanogens in the rumen co-exist with other microbes, which have contrasting activities. A better understanding of these populations and the pathways that compete with methanogenesis may provide novel targets for emissions abatement in ruminant production.

Microbial ecosystem and methanogenesis in ruminants

In this paper, we have obtained bounds on Csiszar’s f-divergence in terms of relative information of type s using Dragomir’s [8] approach. The results obtained in particular lead us to bounds in terms of χ2−Divergence, Kullback-Leibler’s relative information and Hellinger’s discrimination.

Generalized Relative Information and Information Inequalities

Informed livestock sector policy development and priority setting is heavily dependent on a good understanding of livestock production systems. In a collaborative effort between the Food and Agriculture Organization and the International Livestock Research Institute, stock has been taken of where we have come from in agricultural systems classification and mapping; the current state of the art; and the directions in which research and data collection efforts need to take in the future. 

The book also addresses issues relating to the intensity and scale of production, moving from what is done to how it is done. The intensification of production is an area of particular importance, for it is in the intensive systems that changes are occurring most rapidly and where most information is needed on the implications that intensification of production may have for livelihoods, poverty alleviation, animal diseases, public health and environmental outcomes. 

A series of case studies is provided, linking livestock production systems to rural livelihoods and poverty and examples of the application of livestock production system maps are drawn from livestock production, now and in the future; livestock's impact on the global environment; animal and public health; and livestock and livelihoods. 

This book provides a formal reference to Version 5 of the global livestock production systems map, and to revised estimates of the numbers of rural poor livestock keepers, by country and livestock production system. These maps and data are freely available for download via FAO's web pages: www.fao.org/AG/againfo/resources/en/glw/home.html. It is hoped that this publication will stimulate further work in this field and encourage the use of livestock production systems information and maps in research and analysis.

Global livestock production systems.

Summary Livestock systems in developing countries are characterised by rapid change, driven by factors such as population growth, increases in the demand for livestock products as incomes rise, and urbanisation. Climate change is adding to the considerable development challenges posed by these drivers of change. How can livestock keepers take advantage of the increasing demand for livestock products, where this is feasible, and how can the livestock assets of the poor be protected in the face of changing and increasingly variable climates? Given the complexity of livestock and crop-livestock systems, a mix of technological, policy and institutional innovations will inevitably be required. Here we outline some of the likely impacts of climate change on livestock and livestock systems, and discuss some of the resultant priority livestock development issues: water and feeds, livestock genetics and breeding, and animal health. We highlight livestock's role in alleviating poverty and helping households to deal with climate variability. However, there are considerable gaps in our knowledge of how climate change and increasing climate variability will affect livestock systems and the livelihoods of the people who depend on them. We highlight the need for detailed assessment of localised impacts, and the importance of identifying appropriate options that can help livestock keepers adapt to climate change.

/pdf/vulnerability-climate-change-and-livestock-research-vz0reyhtha.pdf

Vulnerability, Climate change and Livestock - Research Opportunities and Challenges for Poverty Alleviation

Reproductive performance and disease data were recorded for 2 years on 1,824 dairy cows in smallholder farms using participatory approaches and onfarm recording. Most animals experienced one service to conception. Calving intervals were long, ranging between 261 and 761 days, with an average of 451±101days. Herd level of production (HeL) had significant effect on calving interval. However, there was no difference between crossbreds with different levels of exotic breed percentage or in different HeL classes in disease incidence. Most animals had less than 2 treatment events, despite the high disease burden in the study areas. Mortality rates were low, ranging from 2.13% to 2.65%. Even though the crossbred animals had higher performance compared to indigenous animals, the gains obtained were below what would be possible with better management. These results suggest that crosses with low exotic proportions would be the most optimal for the production systems studied.

Use of high density SNP genotypes to determine the breed composition of cross bred dairy

Key messages  The value chain analysis framework broadens livestock breeding perspectives and outlines the catalytic and transformational role of genetics and breeding for specific product lines in smallholder dairy and tilapia-producing aquaculture systems.  Innovation platforms of value chain actors can help increase smallholder livelihoods and meet market demand in developing countries by facilitating the co-creation of solutions to livestock challenges and enhancing the quality of livestock and fish products.  Strategic milk, meat and fish production across diverse systems are required; sustainability requires that these interventions are socially acceptable, productive, competitive and environmentally friendly.

Using a value chain approach to focus animal genetic interventions

We present use of SNP technologies to obtain for the first time, rapid, large-scale, in situ estimates of performance of crossbred cows in smallholder herds. Compared to historical approaches, our approach allowed optimum crossbreed choices to be determined more rapidly and without question about the relevance of the environment. High-density SNP assays were used to estimate breed composition for a monitored population comprising 1292 cows from 610 smallholder farms in Kenya. The achieved milk yields are much lower than generally assumed and lactation curves are very flat out to 400 days. In poor production environments, lower grade crosses (containing <60% exotic dairy alleles) had the same yield as high grade crosses. Allowing for the larger size and maintenance requirements of high grade exotics, lower grade exotics will be the most economically productive animals in these environments.

/pdf/a-novel-use-of-high-density-snp-assays-to-optimize-choice-of-v81vh9uxu2.pdf

A novel use of high density SNP assays to optimize choice of different crossbred dairy cattle genotypes in small-holder systems in East Africa

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Vulnerability, Climate change and Livestock - Research Opportunities and Challenges for Poverty Alleviation

Use of high density SNP genotypes to determine the breed composition of cross bred dairy

Using a value chain approach to focus animal genetic interventions

A novel use of high density SNP assays to optimize choice of different crossbred dairy cattle genotypes in small-holder systems in East Africa