In Victoria, Australia, both dryland salinity and salinity in irrigation regions are serious agricultural problems. One option to control the latter is to pump groundwater to maintain it below the surface. However, this leaves a saline wastewater for disposal, probably into local streams or wetlands. This review of the salt sensitivity of the biota of Australian streams and wetlands gives information of interest to those responsible for developing controls on these discharges. The review addresses the lethal and sub-lethal effects of salinity on microbes (mainly bacteria), macrophytes and micro-algae, riparian vegetation, invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds. Data suggest that direct adverse biological effects are likely to occur in Australian river, stream and wetland ecosystems if salinity is increased to around 1 000 mg L−1. The review highlights a general lack of data on the sensitivity of freshwater plants and animals to salinity increases.

A review of the salt sensitivity of the Australian freshwater biota

Salt tolerance screening of selected Australian woody species — a review

Calibration of the forest growth model 3-PG to eucalypt plantations growing in low rainfall regions of Australia

Hydrologic and salinity changes associated with tree plantations in a saline agricultural catchment in southwestern Australia

Doubts exist about the effectiveness of establishing trees near saline discharge areas on farmland to manage dryland salinity. These centre on low rates of water uptake from saline water tables, salt accumulation in tree root zones and the consequent poor growth and survival of trees. Despite this, trees still survive in many plantations established adjacent to saline discharge areas and land-holders often favour such locations, as they do not compete for arable land such as that occurs with plantings in recharge areas. Tree performance and salt accumulation were assessed in three experimental plantations established adjacent to saline discharge areas 20–25 years ago. These were all in the 400–600 mm rainfall zone of south-western Australia. Mean soil salinity, within 1 m of the surface, ranged from 220 to 630 mS m−1, while permanent ground-waters occurred within 2–5 m of the surface and had electrical conductivities ranging from 175 to 4150 mS m−1. The study confirmed the low growth rates expected for trees established over shallow, saline water tables in a relatively low rainfall environment, with estimated wood volumes in Eucalyptus cladocalyx, E. spathulata, E. sargentii, E. occidentalis and E. wandoo of between 0.5 and 1.5 m3 ha−1 yr−1. Values of up to 3 m3 ha−1 yr−1 were obtained on soils with low salinity ( 70%) of several Eucalyptus species confirms that discharge plantations species can persist, despite increasing soil salinity. However, the long-term sustainability of such plantings (50–100 years) without broader landscape treatment of the present hydrological imbalance must be questioned.

Tree Performance and Root-Zone Salt Accumulation in Three Dryland Australian Plantations

Clearing of native forest has caused a rise in soil watertables and increased the salinity of land and streams in south-western Australia. Reforestation is a possible method of increasing the use of water on cleared catchments, lowering watertables and reducing the output of salt from hillside seeps. One of the first needs is evidence of suitable species for such a project. This paper describes the comparative success of twenty-eight species (mainly Eucalyptus spp.) in establishment and early growth when grown on and near saline seeps during 1976–77. Plantations were located in 850, 500 and 420 mm annual rainfall zones of the Hotham River valley about 150 km south-east of Perth, Western Australia. The sites had saline confined aquifers and seasonal perched watertables which were typical of many landscapes in the region.



Though rainfall was below average and only one watering was given, nineteen species had greater than 80% establishment in upslope, midslope and downslope positions. In late winter 1977, 15 months after planting, the leading species were 1–2 metres tall and carried leaf area up to 5.5 m2 per tree where current rainfall was highest. The results indicate a high potential for plant establishment and early growth within the rainfall zones. Eucalyptus spp. from many regions of southern Australia were successful at the wettest location. Success at the two driest locations was limited to species from dry climates of southern South Australia and Western Australia.



Planting on seep areas decreased the establishment of three species. Eucalyptus wandoo, E. globulus and E. camaldulensis, which performed well on non-seep areas at one or more locations.



Implications for a source of further test species and for planting strategy near seeps are discussed.

Establishment and early growth of species in farm plantations near salt seeps

The effect of ten soil types on yield and survival of three perennial grasses, each mixed with volunteer annual species, was studied for three years under periodic grazing Yields of cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata cv Currie), phalaris (Phalaris aquatica cv Australian) and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea cv Melik) were higher on a gravelly yellow podzolic soil than on other types; phalaris also yielded well on a red podzolic soil Analysis by multiple linear regression showed that the yield of all sown grasses was high when perched water of the A and upper B horizons was recorded early in winter and sustained until late spring High gravel content in the A horizon improved cocksfoot and fescue yield and depressed that of phalaris The high gravel content was associated with increased gravel and decreased water retention of the top of the B horizon at 15 bars Higher texture classes in the A horizon tended to depress yields of cocksfoot and fescue with no apparent effect on phalaris The higher texture classes of the clay and clay loam soils tended to decrease general root penetrations Cocksfoot and phalaris were more productive on shallow than on deep A horizon soils, but fescue yield was not affected by this soil property Yields of the species can be estimated accurately from regression equations based on three or four soil properties The results suggest options for selecting perennial grasses suitable for specific soil types among the red earth and red and yellow podzolic groups in the South Western Region of Western Australia The central problem is that cocksfoot, phalaris and fescue can yield well but do not do so on all soil types

Effect of soil properties on the yield and persistence of Mediterranean perennial grasses in southern Western Australia

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Establishment and early growth of species in farm plantations near salt seeps

Effect of soil properties on the yield and persistence of Mediterranean perennial grasses in southern Western Australia