Mastitis is characterized by physical, chemical and bacteriological changes in the milk and pathological changes in the glandular tissue of the udder and affects the quality and quantity of milk. The bacterial contamination of milk from the affected cows render it unfit for human consumption and provides a mechanism of spread of diseases like tuberculosis, sore-throat, Q-fever, brucellosis, leptospirosis etc. and has zoonotic importance. Somatic cell count (SCC) is a useful predictor of intramammary infection (IMI) that includes leucocytes (75%) i.e. neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, erythrocytes and epithelial cells (25%). Leucocytes increase in response to bacterial infection, tissue injury and stress. Somatic cells are protective for the animal body and fight infectious organisms. An elevated SCC in milk has a negative influence on the quality of raw milk. Subclinical mastitis is always related to low milk production, changes to milk consistency (density), reduced possibility of adequate milk processing, low protein and high risk for milk hygiene since it may even contain pathogenic organisms. This review collects and collates relevant publications on the subject. (

/pdf/relationship-of-somatic-cell-count-and-mastitis-an-overview-1iqq4155de.pdf

Relationship of Somatic Cell Count and Mastitis: An Overview

Host-response patterns of intramammary infections in dairy cows

Mastitis (intramammary inflammation) caused by infectious pathogens is still considered a devastating condition of dairy animals affecting animal welfare as well as economically incurring huge losses to the dairy industry by means of decreased production performance and increased culling rates. Bovine mastitis is the inflammation of the mammary glands/udder of bovines, caused by bacterial pathogens, in most cases. Routine diagnosis is based on clinical and subclinical forms of the disease. This underlines the significance of early and rapid identification/detection of etiological agents at the farm level, for which several diagnostic techniques have been developed. Therapeutic regimens such as antibiotics, immunotherapy, bacteriocins, bacteriophages, antimicrobial peptides, probiotics, stem cell therapy, native secretory factors, nutritional, dry cow and lactation therapy, genetic selection, herbs, and nanoparticle technology-based therapy have been evaluated for their efficacy in the treatment of mastitis. Even though several strategies have been developed over the years for the purpose of managing both clinical and subclinical forms of mastitis, all of them lacked the efficacy to eliminate the associated etiological agent when used as a monotherapy. Further, research has to be directed towards the development of new therapeutic agents/techniques that can both replace conventional techniques and also solve the problem of emerging antibiotic resistance. The objective of the present review is to describe the etiological agents, pathogenesis, and diagnosis in brief along with an extensive discussion on the advances in the treatment and management of mastitis, which would help safeguard the health of dairy animals.

Advances in therapeutic and managemental approaches of bovine mastitis: a comprehensive review

Antimicrobials are critical to contemporary high-intensity beef production. Many different antimicrobials are approved for beef cattle, and are used judiciously for animal welfare, and controversially, to promote growth and feed efficiency. Antimicrobial administration provides a powerful selective pressure that acts on the microbial community, selecting for resistance gene determinants and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria resident in the bovine flora. The bovine microbiota includes many harmless bacteria, but also opportunistic pathogens that may acquire and propagate resistance genes within the microbial community via horizontal gene transfer. Antimicrobial-resistant bovine pathogens can also complicate the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases in beef feedlots, threatening the efficiency of the beef production system. Likewise, the transmission of antimicrobial resistance genes to bovine-associated human pathogens is a potential public health concern. This review outlines current antimicrobial use practices pertaining to beef production, and explores the frequency of antimicrobial resistance in major bovine pathogens. The effect of antimicrobials on the composition of the bovine microbiota is examined, as are the effects on the beef production resistome. Antimicrobial resistance is further explored within the context of the wider beef production continuum, with emphasis on antimicrobial resistance genes in the food chain, and risk to the human population.

/pdf/antimicrobial-usage-and-resistance-in-beef-production-1hscqzg4wy.pdf

Antimicrobial usage and resistance in beef production

Bovine mastitis (BM) is a disease with high incidence worldwide and one of the most relevant bovine pathologies and the most costly to the dairy industry. BM is an inflammation of the udder and represents one of the most difficult veterinary diseases to control. Biofilm formation is considered a selective advantage for pathogens causing mastitis, facilitating bacterial persistence in the udder. In fact, recently some authors drew attention to the biofilm formation ability presented by several mastitis causing pathogens and to its possible relation with recurrent mastitis infections and with the increased resistance to antimicrobial agents and host immune defence system. Actually, up to now, several researchers reported the potential role of cells in this mode of growth in the previous facts mentioned. As a consequence of the presence of biofilms, the infection here focused is more difficult to treat and eradicate, making this problem a more relevant pressing issue. Thus, we believe that a deeper knowledge of these structures in mastitis can help to determine the best control strategy to be used in veterinary practice in order to reduce losses in the dairy industry and to ensure milk safety and quality. The aim of this paper was to review the existing research and consequently to provide an overview of the role of biofilms in BM infections.

Bovine mastitis disease/pathogenicity: evidence of the potential role of microbial biofilms.

The purpose of the study was to determine the etiological mastitis agents in cows from herds located in the western part of Poland in years 2003-2005. Bacteriological examinations of 18,713 samples taken from California Mastitis Test (CMT) positive quarters were performed according to standard methods. Some Gram-negative bacilli and Gram-positive cocci were examined with the use of API tests (Analytical Profile Index). It was found that 32.7% of samples that were CMT positive were culture negative and 9.3% of samples were contaminated. Streptococcus species (15.7%), coagulase negative staphylococci (CNS) (14.6%), Staph. aureus (8.6%), Gram-negative bacilli (4.0%) and Corynebacterium species (3.8%) were most frequently isolated. Escherichia coli (52.3%) dominated among Gram-negative bacilli followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae (4.1%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (3.6%), Enterobacter cloacae (3.6%), Serratia marcescens (3.1%), Pasteurella multocida (3.1%), Acinetobacter lwofii (3.1%), and 26 other bacteria species. Stahylococcus xylosus (31.5%), Staph. hyicus (12.2%), Staph. haemolyticus (12.2%), Staph. sciuri (11.6%), Staph. chromogenes (8.8%), Staph. epidermidis (8.3%) and Staph. simulans (6.1%) were the most frequent CNS. Streptococcus uberis (50%), Str. dysgalactiae (19.7%), Str. acidominimus (6.6%) and Enterococcus faecalis (5.3%) were mostly found among CAMP-negative streptococci. An increase in frequency of mastitis caused by non-agalactiae streptococci, Staph. aureus, A. pyogenes and yeast-like fungi and a decrease in that produced by Str. agalactiae in 2005 as compared to years 2003 or 2004 were observed.

Etiological agents of dairy cows' mastitis in western part of Poland.

The purpose of the study was to determine the in vitro susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) strains isolated from clinical and subclinical cases of mastitis to antimicrobial drugs. Antimicrobial sensitivity was tested by the disk diffusion method and performed according to NCCLS guidelines in the Mueller-Hinton agar. Strains isolated from clinical mastitis did not differ in their sensitivity from that of strains isolated from subclinical mastitis cases. However, the strains were more resistant to penicillin, ampicillin, amoxicillin, cloxacillin, cefoperazone, tetracycline, lincomycin and neomycin than CNS strains, but their sensitivity to erythromycin, bacitracin and novobiocin was almost the same.

http://www.piwet.pulawy.pl/doc/biuletyn_46-2/malinowski_312.pdf

Antimicrobial susceptibility of staphylococci isolated from affected with mastitis cows

The comparison of some hormonal and biochemical blood indices in healthy cows (C) and cows affected with retained foetal membranes (RFM) or puerperal metritis (PM) was the aim of the study. Blood samples were taken between 12 and 24 h (RFM) or 8-10 d (PM) after calving. The progesterone, 17-β oestradiol, cholesterol, glucose, ketone bodies (KB) and free fatty acids (FFA) levels were similar in all the cows examined. Cows with RFM had higher level (P < 0.05) of cortisol (37.4 nmol/l) between 12 and 24 h after calving than control animals (24.2 nmol/l). The progesterone level was higher (P < 0.05) in cows with RFM (2.61 mmol/l) versus control group (1.59 mmol/l). The cortisol concentration did not show a statistical differences between PM and C animals. These data indicate that the cholesterol, KB and FFA levels can be similar after calving in healthy and RFM or PM cows in the same farm. Cows with RFM can show a higher cortisol level immediately after calving. The progesterone level decreases slower after parturition in RFM cows in comparison to healthy ones.

http://www.piwet.pulawy.pl/doc/biuletyn_50-1/16_Kaczmarowski.pdf

Some hormonal and biochemical blood indices in cows with retained placenta and puerperal metritis

The purpose of the study was to determine the microorganism species dependently on somatic cell count (SCC) in foremilk (inflammatory secretion) samples. Bacteriological examinations of 18 713 samples taken from clinically and subclinically (CMT positive) inflamed quarters were performed according to standard methods. Above 13% of the samples originated from quarters previously treated with antibiotics, and 75% of them were free from infection. Milk samples with SCC lower than 200 000 were mostly (59.6%) culture negative. Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), Staph. aureus and Streptococcus sp. were mostly noted in samples with 200 000-2 000 000 of SCC/ml. Samples having more than 2 million/ml of SCC were infected mainly with CAMP-negative and CAMP-positive streptococci and Gramnegative bacilli. The highest SCC (≥10 mln/ml) in foremilk samples were associated with intramammary infections by Arcanobacterium pyogenes (95.5%), Streptococcus agalactiae (57.6%) and Gram-negative organisms (46.5%). Very high SCC (≥5mln/ml) was connected with infections caused by Prototheca sp. (64.5%), Yeast-like fungi (60.2%) and Streptococcus sp. (55.1%). Staph. aureus (76.2%), CNS (84.2%), Gram-positive bacilli (72.4%) and Corynebacterium sp. (83.2%) caused an increase in SCC that was smaller than 5 mln/ml.

Relationship between mastitis agents and somatic cell count in foremilk samples

The purpose of the study was determining the in vitro sensitivity of Streptococcus agalactiae, other Streptococcus sp., Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci, Escherichia coli, and Arcanobacterium pyogenes strains to antibiotics commonly used in veterinary praxis. These pathogens were isolated from cows with clinical or subclinical mastitis in 2006–2007. The activity of 10–14 antibiotics to each bacterial species was examined. The sensitivity was tested by disk diffusion method and performed according to CLSI guidelines in Mueller-Hinton agar. Streptococcus agalactiae strains were mostly sensitive to amoxicillin (93.6%), cefquinom (96%), cefapirin (94.1%), cefoperazone (88.9%, bacitracin (87.1%), and cephalexin (79%). Other streptococci were most susceptible to amoxicillin (91.4%), cefquinom (84.1%), bacitracin (89%), and cephalexin (79.7%). Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (97.4%), cloxacillin (90%), cefquinom (92.9%), cephalexin (90.5%), and bacitracin (88.6%) were the most active against Staphylococcus aureus. Coagulase-negative staphylococci were sensitive to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (100%), cefquinom (89.2%), cephalexin (89.3%), bacitracin (86,.1%), rifaximin (86.8%), and cefapirin (86.5%). Norfloxacin (85.1%), enrofloxacin (83.9%), and marbofloxacin (84.4%) were active against Gram-negative bacilli. Only amoxicillin (87.1%) from ten analysed antibiotics exhibited very high activity against Arcanobacterium pyogenes.

Antimicrobial susceptibility of bacteria isolated from cows with mastitis in 2006-2007

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