The clinical use of deep brain stimulation (DBS) is among the most important advances in the clinical neurosciences in the past two decades. As a surgical tool, DBS can directly measure pathological brain activity and can deliver adjustable stimulation for therapeutic effect in neurological and psychiatric disorders correlated with dysfunctional circuitry. The development of DBS has opened new opportunities to access and interrogate malfunctioning brain circuits and to test the therapeutic potential of regulating the output of these circuits in a broad range of disorders. Despite the success and rapid adoption of DBS, crucial questions remain, including which brain areas should be targeted and in which patients. This Review considers how DBS has facilitated advances in our understanding of how circuit malfunction can lead to brain disorders and outlines the key unmet challenges and future directions in the DBS field. Determining the next steps in DBS science will help to define the future role of this technology in the development of novel therapeutics for the most challenging disorders affecting the human brain. Over the past 20 years, deep brain stimulation (DBS) has transformed the treatment of movement disorders. Now, new therapeutic possibilities for DBS are emerging for other neurological and psychiatric disorders. This Review considers the clinical and scientific advances facilitated by DBS and the crucial questions, challenges and opportunities that face this technology.

/pdf/deep-brain-stimulation-current-challenges-and-future-5cin0ssqno.pdf

Deep brain stimulation: current challenges and future directions

Objectives: To provide a revised version of earlier guidelines published in 2006. Background: Primary dystonias are chronic and often disabling conditions with a widespread spectrum mainly in young people. Diagnosis: Primary dystonias are classified as pure dystonia, dystonia plus or paroxysmal dystonia syndromes. Assessment should be performed using a validated rating scale for dystonia. Genetic testing may be performed after establishing the clinical diagnosis. DYT1 testing is recommended for patients with primary dystonia with limb onset before age 30, and in those with an affected relative with early-onset dystonia. DYT6 testing is recommended in early-onset or familial cases with craniocervical dystonia or after exclusion of DYT1. Individuals with early-onset myoclonus should be tested for mutations in the DYT11 gene. If direct sequencing of the DYT11 gene is negative, additional gene dosage is required to improve the proportion of mutations detected. A levodopa trial is warranted in every patient with early-onset primary dystonia without an alternative diagnosis. In patients with idiopathic dystonia, neurophysiological tests can help with describing the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the disorder. Treatment: Botulinum toxin (BoNT) type A is the first-line treatment for primary cranial (excluding oromandibular) or cervical dystonia; it is also effective on writing dystonia. BoNT/B is not inferior to BoNT/A in cervical dystonia. Pallidal deep brain stimulation (DBS) is considered a good option, particularly for primary generalized or cervical dystonia, after medication or BoNT have failed. DBS is less effective in secondary dystonia. This treatment requires a specialized expertise and a multidisciplinary team.

/pdf/efns-guidelines-on-diagnosis-and-treatment-of-primary-ds5dcp8kbj.pdf

EFNS guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of primary dystonias

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1016%2Fj.nurt.2008.01.010.pdf

Mechanisms and Targets of Deep Brain Stimulation in Movement Disorders

There is substantial variability in the responsiveness of dystonia patients to deep brain stimulation (DBS), presumably due to the multiple causes of dystonia. This article presents the results of an analysis of the combined published results of individual patient outcomes following DBS for all types of dystonia. From 157 papers reporting clinical outcomes of DBS for dystonia, individual quantitative data were available for 466 patients with all forms of dystonia. The subclassification of these patients included 344 with primary forms of dystonia, 10 with myoclonus dystonia, 19 with heredodegenerative dystonias and 93 who had DBS for secondary dystonia. Patients with primary forms of dystonia, myoclonus dystonia, subtypes of heredo-degenerative dystonia and tardive dystonia have a greater than 50% mean improvement in dystonia severity following DBS. Among patients with primary generalised dystonia, multiple regression analysis showed that a shorter duration of symptoms (p=0.008), a lower baseline severity score (p=0.024) and DYT1 positive status (p=0.002) were all independently associated with a significantly higher percentage improvement from surgery. Patients with other forms of heredodegenerative and secondary dystonia have variable responses, making prediction of response in future patients difficult. The degree of dystonia response that justifies DBS is a highly subjective issue. Emphasis should be placed on both safety of surgical technique and an in-depth evaluation of patients' own perception of their life before and after DBS by using validated quality of life measures, in addition to existing use of objective severity scales.

https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/jnnp/81/12/1383.full.pdf

Which patients with dystonia benefit from deep brain stimulation? A metaregression of individual patient outcomes

Deep brain stimulation of the globus pallidus internus alleviates involuntary movements in patients with dystonia. However, the mechanism is still not entirely understood. One hypothesis is that deep brain stimulation suppresses abnormally enhanced synchronized oscillatory activity within the motor cortico-basal ganglia network. Here, we explore deep brain stimulation-induced modulation of pathological low frequency (4-12 Hz) pallidal activity that has been described in local field potential recordings in patients with dystonia. Therefore, local field potentials were recorded from 16 hemispheres in 12 patients undergoing deep brain stimulation for severe dystonia using a specially designed amplifier allowing simultaneous high frequency stimulation at therapeutic parameter settings and local field potential recordings. For coherence analysis electroencephalographic activity (EEG) over motor areas and electromyographic activity (EMG) from affected neck muscles were recorded before and immediately after cessation of high frequency stimulation. High frequency stimulation led to a significant reduction of mean power in the 4-12 Hz band by 24.8 ± 7.0% in patients with predominantly phasic dystonia. A significant decrease of coherence between cortical EEG and pallidal local field potential activity in the 4-12 Hz range was revealed for the time period of 30 s after switching off high frequency stimulation. Coherence between EMG activity and pallidal activity was mainly found in patients with phasic dystonic movements where it was suppressed after high frequency stimulation. Our findings suggest that high frequency stimulation may suppress pathologically enhanced low frequency activity in patients with phasic dystonia. These dystonic features are the quickest to respond to high frequency stimulation and may thus directly relate to modulation of pathological basal ganglia activity, whereas improvement in tonic features may depend on long-term plastic changes within the motor network.

/pdf/deep-brain-stimulation-suppresses-pallidal-low-frequency-2z1ikyev5i.pdf

Deep brain stimulation suppresses pallidal low frequency activity in patients with phasic dystonic movements

Background: Orthostatic tremor with its sense of unsteadiness when standing may have a devastating effect on affected persons. Currently, there are no other treatment options in those who do not respond or who do not tolerate medical treatment. Objectives: To report on a pilot study on spinal cord stimulation in medically intractable orthostatic tremor. Methods: Chronic spinal cord stimulation (SCS) was performed in two patients with medically-intractable orthostatic tremor via quadripolar plate electrodes implanted at the lower thoracic spine. The electrodes were connected to implantable pulse generators. Results: Subjective and objective improvement of unsteadiness was achieved within a frequency range of 50 to 150 Hz, and occurred in the presence of stimulation-induced paraesthesia. With optimized stimulation settings polygraphic electromyelogram (EMG) recordings continued to show the typical 14–16 Hz EMG activity. The beneficial effect of SCS was maintained at long-term follow-up. Conclusions: The results of this pilot study indicate that SCS may be an option in patients with otherwise intractable orthostatic tremor.

/pdf/chronic-spinal-cord-stimulation-in-medically-intractable-4wleg90abn.pdf

Chronic spinal cord stimulation in medically intractable orthostatic tremor

A 67-year-old man with risperidone-responsive segmental dystonia underwent bilateral deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the globus pallidus internus. Prospectively, the authors assessed the Burke–Fahn–Marsden Dystonia Rating Scale in medication (M) and stimulation (S) “on”/“off” states. With DBS at 9 months, the score improved by 86% to 8.5 in M-“on”/S-“on” and 12.5 in M-“off”/S-“on.” Studies of the effects of DBS and concomitant medication may be warranted in selected patients treated by DBS for dystonia.

Risperidone-responsive segmental dystonia and pallidal deep brain stimulation.

The pattern of reoccurrence of symptoms after discontinuation of deep brain stimulation (DBS) has not been systematically studied in dystonia. Eight patients (mean age (SD) 53.8 (14.4) years) with segmental dystonia at a mean follow-up of 11.3 (4.2) months were studied after implantation of bilateral DBS electrodes in the internal globus pallidus using a standard video protocol and clinical rating scales, immediately and at 2 and 4 h after switching off DBS. Dystonic signs returned sequentially, with a rapid worsening of phasic and a slower worsening of tonic dystonic components. In all patients, phasic dystonic features appeared within a few minutes, whereas the tonic elements of dystonia reoccurred with a more variable delay. Differential clinical effects when withdrawing DBS might reflect its influence on different pathophysiological mechanisms in dystonia.

/pdf/patterns-of-reoccurrence-of-segmental-dystonia-after-2yyfb1ykrt.pdf

Patterns of reoccurrence of segmental dystonia after discontinuation of deep brain stimulation

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Papers

Chronic spinal cord stimulation in medically intractable orthostatic tremor

Risperidone-responsive segmental dystonia and pallidal deep brain stimulation.

Patterns of reoccurrence of segmental dystonia after discontinuation of deep brain stimulation