Fermented foods and beverages are a heterogeneous class of products with a relevant worldwide significance for human economy, nutrition and health for millennia. A huge diversity of microorganisms is associated with the enormous variety in terms of raw materials, fermentative behavior and obtained products. In this wide microbiodiversity it is possible that the presence of microbial pathogens and toxic by-products of microbial origin, including mycotoxins, ethyl carbamate and biogenic amines, are aspects liable to reduce the safety of the consumed product. Together with other approaches (e.g., use of preservatives, respect of specific physico-chemical parameters), starter cultures technology has been conceived to successfully dominate indigenous microflora and to drive fermentation to foresee the desired attributes of the matrix, assuring quality and safety. Recent trends indicate a general return to spontaneous food fermentation. In this review, we point out the potential risks for human health associated with uncontrolled (uninoculated) food fermentation and we discuss biotechnological approaches susceptible to conciliate fermented food safety, with instances of an enhanced contribution of microbes associated to spontaneous fermentation.

https://www.mdpi.com/2311-5637/3/4/49/pdf/1

Spontaneous Food Fermentations and Potential Risks for Human Health

Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) polyphenols beneficial effects have widely been debated throughout the last three decades, with greater attention to hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol, which are by far the most studied. The main concern about the evaluation of EVOO phenols activities in vitro and in vivo is that the absorption and metabolism of these compounds once ingested lead to the production of different metabolites in the human body. EVOO phenols in the ingested forms are less concentrated in human tissues than their glucuronide, sulfate and methyl metabolites; on the other hand, metabolites may undergo deconjugation before entering the cells and thus act as free forms or may be reformed inside the cells so acting as conjugated forms. In most in vitro studies the presence of methyl/sulfate/glucuronide functional groups does not seem to inhibit biological activity. Parent compounds and metabolites have been shown to reach tissue concentrations useful to exert beneficial effects others than antioxidant and scavenging properties, by modulating intracellular signaling and improving cellular response to oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory stimuli. This review aims to give an overview on the reported evidence of the positive effects exerted by the main EVOO polyphenols metabolites in comparison with the parent compounds.

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3921/7/12/170/pdf

Biological Relevance of Extra Virgin Olive Oil Polyphenols Metabolites.

Table olives are one of the oldest vegetable fermented foods in the Mediterranean area. Beside their economic impact, fermented table olives represent also an important healthy food in the Mediterranean diet, because of their high content of bioactive and health-promoting compounds. However, olive fermentation is still craft-based following traditional processes, which can lead to a not fully predictable final product with the risk of spontaneous alterations. Nowadays, food industries have to face consumer demands for safe and healthy products. This review offers an overview about the main technologies used for olive fermentation and the role of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts characterizing this niche during the fermentation. Particular attention is offered to the selection and use of microorganisms as starter cultures to fasten and improve the safety of table olives. The development and implementation of multifunctional starter cultures in order to obtain heath-oriented table olives is also discussed.

https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/9/2/178/pdf

Table Olives More than a Fermented Food.

The olive-oil-centered Mediterranean diet has been associated with extended life expectancy and a reduction in the risk of age-related degenerative diseases. Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) itself has been proposed to promote a "successful aging", being able to virtually modulate all the features of the aging process, because of its great monounsaturated fatty acids content and its minor bioactive compounds, the polyphenols above all. Polyphenols are mostly antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds, able to modulate abnormal cellular signaling induced by pro-inflammatory stimuli and oxidative stress, as that related to NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf-2) and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), which have been identified as important modulators of age-related disorders and aging itself. This review summarizes existing literature about the interaction between EVOO polyphenols and NF-κB and Nrf-2 signaling pathways. Reported studies show the ability of EVOO phenolics, mainly hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol, to activate Nrf-2 signaling, inducing a cellular defense response and to prevent NF-κB activation, thus suppressing the induction of a pro-inflammatory phenotype. Literature data, although not exhaustive, indicate as a whole that EVOO polyphenols may significantly help to modulate the aging process, so tightly connected to oxidative stress and chronic inflammation.

https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4409/9/2/478/pdf

Extra Virgin Olive Oil Polyphenols: Modulation of Cellular Pathways Related to Oxidant Species and Inflammation in Aging.

This review focuses on the conditions required to increase and maintain the antioxidant nutrients in both extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) and table olives (TOs) from the agronomic and technological practices to the gastronomy. The main antioxidants of TOs and EVOO are phenol alcohols and acids, secoiridoids, lignans and flavones, all of which possess the ability to prolong the oil’s shelf-life and exhibit healthy properties for humans. The precise detection of secoiridoid derivatives remains the breakthrough for the nutritional and health quality certification of extra virgin olive oils (EVOOs) required for EFSA health claims. To attain the necessary antioxidant quality in both EVOO and TOs, it is necessary to hard focus on the several steps in the production chain, including olive cultivar, agronomic conditions, harvesting methods, and transformation technology. The quality level is maintained if the storage conditions aim to minimize the oxidative processes that occur due to oxygen and light. In terms of minor polar biophenols, there is disagreement on which between the organic or conventional EVOOs show higher concentration values. The strict disciplinary of production of protected designation EVOOs does not ensure higher phenol values in comparison to the artisanal EVOOs. In gastronomy, the EVOOs are preferable to seed oils, particularly during frying vegetable. The EVOOs show higher heat stability, linked both to the fatty acid composition and the phenol content, that is important for preventing fatty acids oxidation. Concerning TOs, the commercial presentation includes olives and olive paste. Both products show a remarkable loss of natural antioxidants after pasteurization and during storage as the thermal treatment mostly impacts on TOs secoiridoids.

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3921/9/1/41/pdf

Antioxidants in Extra Virgin Olive Oil and Table Olives: Connections between Agriculture and Processing for Health Choices

The phenolic fraction of a naturally fermented cultivar of table olives, "Tonda di Cagliari," was investigated for the ability to protect Caco-2 cells against oxidative stress and membrane damage induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxyde (TBH). TBH exposure resulted in an alteration of cellular redox status, with an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and a decrease in reduced glutathione (GSH) level. A loss of the epithelial integrity, as indicated by the decrease of the transepithelial electrical resistance value, was also observed over time, together with an intense lipid peroxidation process. The olives phenolic extract significantly counteracted ROS generation and subsequent alteration of monolayer integrity and membrane oxidative damage. The protective action of the extract is likely due to the scavenging ability of its main components, as hydroxytyrosol, oleuropein, and verbascoside among the secoiridoids and derivatives. Since olives phenolic compounds concentrate in the intestinal lumen, they may be a useful tool in the prevention of intestinal disorders related to oxidative damage.

Antioxidant Effect of Natural Table Olives Phenolic Extract Against Oxidative Stress and Membrane Damage in Enterocyte-Like Cells.

The processing of natural table olives is still empirical and far to be controlled. Taking natural fermentation (NF) as control, the performances of a single strain LAB starter culture (SSL) and a selected inoculum enrichment (SIE) were compared. The results showed that the SIE was more efficient in controlling spoiling microflora (Enterobacteriaceae spp.) compared to SSL and NF. Indeed, Enterobacteriaceae in SIE samples were not detectable starting from 10 days, while in SSL and NF samples starting from 30 days. Both starters rapidly acidified the brine, lowering the pH to safety levels (

Evaluation of a single strain starter culture, a selected inoculum enrichment, and natural microflora in the processing of Tonda di Cagliari natural table olives: Impact on chemical, microbiological, sensory and texture quality

Starters are widely used for driving food fermentations faster and more safely Recently, the use of natural autochthonous microbiota is being reappraised for obtaining products with peculiar and unique characteristics The aim of this study was to investigate, by DGGE and REP-PCR(GTG) 5 , the microbial dynamics and intra-species biodiversity of Tonda di Cagliari table olives inoculated with a mix of autochthonous Lactobacillus pentosus strains (SIE) or a single Lactobacillus plantarum strain (SSL), taking spontaneous fermentation (NF) as control Furthermore, the sensory quality of the three fermentations trials was evaluated by Descriptive Analysis Among 316 isolates, 289 were identified as Lactobacillus pentosus , and only 31, coming exclusively from batches SSL, as Lactobacillus plantarum  The predominance of L pentosus can be explained by their better adaptation to the olive fermentation environment with respect to L plantarum selected strain inoculated in SSL fermentations Using the culture independent approaches, differences in the fermentation processes were shown only during the first months of fermentation, and several Gram negative species, not frequently isolated in these ecosystems ( Thalassomonas agarivorans , non-fermentative bacteria, and the cyanobacteria Chroococcidiopsis ), were identified Autochthonous starter SIE, compared to SSL, produced olives more similar, in sensory attributes, to the naturally fermented ones

Evolution of microbiota during spontaneous and inoculated Tonda di Cagliari table olives fermentation and impact on sensory characteristics

The results of an experimental trial, carried out using a specifically prepared microbial starter, in an automated pilot plant, are presented. The microbial starter was composed by Lb. pentosus strains. The automatized process was compared with natural fermentation in plastic vats, as control. Relevant process parameters, chemico-physical determinations, instrumental texture, and microbiological analyses were carried out to monitor the fermentation process. Driving the process in controlled conditions resulted in a more rapid acidification, pH reaching lower values than the control. In controlled conditions, inoculated lactobacilli carried out a fast colonization supplanting more rapidly spoilage microflora. In started samples, yeasts number increased until reaching 5 log at 60 days, keeping this value constant until the end of the trials, while, in control batches, their growth was more rapid, reaching 5 log from 15 to 30 days, but their number decreased to 3 log at 90 days. The two processes produced olives with comparable texture profile. However, olives coming from the controlled process resulted debittered in 3 months (descriptive sensory analyses and oleuropein quantification in HPLC), while naturally fermented olives resulted not yet debittered at the end of the trial (180 days). Slight differences were found in few other sensory descriptors. Our results showed that, along with the use of effective autochthonous microbial starters, the innovation of processing plants is the next step towards the shortening of the processing time and the safety assurance of the product, while retaining the sensory quality of naturally fermented olives, using an environmentally friendly technology.

Towards Controlled Fermentation of Table Olives: LAB Starter Driven Process in an Automatic Pilot Processing Plant

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Antioxidant Effect of Natural Table Olives Phenolic Extract Against Oxidative Stress and Membrane Damage in Enterocyte-Like Cells.

Evaluation of a single strain starter culture, a selected inoculum enrichment, and natural microflora in the processing of Tonda di Cagliari natural table olives: Impact on chemical, microbiological, sensory and texture quality

Evolution of microbiota during spontaneous and inoculated Tonda di Cagliari table olives fermentation and impact on sensory characteristics

Towards Controlled Fermentation of Table Olives: LAB Starter Driven Process in an Automatic Pilot Processing Plant