This tutorial review focuses on the recent development of rhodamine derivatives, in which the spirolactam (non-fluorescent) to ring-opened amide (fluorescent) process was utilized.

A new trend in rhodamine-based chemosensors: application of spirolactam ring-opening to sensing ions

Fluorescence lifetimes of five representative xanthene dye species-the rhodamine B zwitterion (RB'), the rhodamine B cation (RB+), the rhodamine 66 cation (R6G+), the rhodamine 101 zwitterion (R101') and the fluorescein dianion (F2-)-were measured in HzO, D20 and in a series of alcohol solvents ranging from methanol to octanol The lietimes of both RB* and RB+ increased markedly as the solvent was varied from water to actanol In contrast, the lifetimes of R6G+ and R101' decreased slightly over the alcohol series and that of F2- increased only slightly in the same series For all the dyes studied the fluorescence lifetimes observed in DzO were slightly longer than those in H20 Possible causes for the variations observed are discussed

Solvent Dependence of the Fluorescence Lifetimes of Xanthene Dyes

This is the first comprehensive review on methods and materials for use in optical sensing of pH values and on applications of such sensors. The Review starts with an introduction that contains subsections on the definition of the pH value, a brief look back on optical methods for sensing of pH, on the effects of ionic strength on pH values and pKa values, on the selectivity, sensitivity, precision, dynamic ranges, and temperature dependence of such sensors. Commonly used optical sensing schemes are covered in a next main chapter, with subsections on methods based on absorptiometry, reflectometry, luminescence, refractive index, surface plasmon resonance, photonic crystals, turbidity, mechanical displacement, interferometry, and solvatochromism. This is followed by sections on absorptiometric and luminescent molecular probes for use pH in sensors. Further large sections cover polymeric hosts and supports, and methods for immobilization of indicator dyes. Further and more specific sections summarize the state of the art in materials with dual functionality (indicator and host), nanomaterials, sensors based on upconversion and 2-photon absorption, multiparameter sensors, imaging, and sensors for extreme pH values. A chapter on the many sensing formats has subsections on planar, fiber optic, evanescent wave, refractive index, surface plasmon resonance and holography based sensor designs, and on distributed sensing. Another section summarizes selected applications in areas, such as medicine, biology, oceanography, bioprocess monitoring, corrosion studies, on the use of pH sensors as transducers in biosensors and chemical sensors, and their integration into flow-injection analyzers, microfluidic devices, and lab-on-a-chip systems. An extra section is devoted to current challenges, with subsections on challenges of general nature and those of specific nature. A concluding section gives an outlook on potential future trends and perspectives.

Optical Sensing and Imaging of pH Values: Spectroscopies, Materials, and Applications

Aggregation phenomena in xanthene dyes

The past decade has witnessed an explosion in the use of super-resolution fluorescence microscopy methods in biology and other fields. Single-molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) is one of the most widespread of these methods and owes its success in large part to the ability to control the on-off state of fluorophores through various chemical, photochemical, or binding-unbinding mechanisms. We provide here a comprehensive overview of switchable fluorophores in SMLM including a detailed review of all major classes of SMLM fluorophores, and we also address strategies for labeling specimens, considerations for multichannel and live-cell imaging, potential pitfalls, and areas for future development.

Switchable Fluorophores for Single-Molecule Localization Microscopy

Rhodamine B Equilibria

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Rhodamine B Equilibria