Soil salinity (high levels of water-soluble salt) and sodicity (high levels of exchangeable sodium), called collectively salt-affected soils, affect approximately 932 million ha of land globally. Saline and sodic landscapes are subjected to modified hydrologic processes which can impact upon soil chemistry, carbon and nutrient cycling, and organic matter decomposition. The soil organic carbon (SOC) pool is the largest terrestrial carbon pool, with the level of SOC an important measure of a soil's health. Because the SOC pool is dependent on inputs from vegetation, the effects of salinity and sodicity on plant health adversely impacts upon SOC stocks in salt-affected areas, generally leading to less SOC. Saline and sodic soils are subjected to a number of opposing processes which affect the soil microbial biomass and microbial activity, changing CO fluxes and the nature and delivery of nutrients to vegetation. Sodic soils compound SOC loss by increasing dispersion of aggregates, which increases SOC mineralisation, and increasing bulk density which restricts access to substrate for mineralisation. Saline conditions can increase the decomposability of soil organic matter but also restrict access to substrates due to flocculation of aggregates as a result of high concentrations of soluble salts. Saline and sodic soils usually contain carbonates, which complicates the carbon (C) dynamics. This paper reviews soil processes that commonly occur in saline and sodic soils, and their effect on C stocks and fluxes to identify the key issues involved in the decomposition of soil organic matter and soil aggregation processes which need to be addressed to fully understand C dynamics in salt-affected soils. © 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation

Soil carbon dynamics in saline and sodic soils: a review.

This paper reviews chemical, physical, and biological problems of salt-affected soils and different reclamation methods applied to rehabilitate these soils. Methods to increase C stocks in these lands are discussed with a focus on biochar application as a potential new approach to not only to increase the C content but also to improve soil properties. Gaps in research knowledge in this field are then identified. Given the concern on the continued worldwide expansion of salt-affected lands and the focus on C sequestration processes, this review has evaluated current knowledge on salt-affected soils and their remediation with organic materials and plants. The review of the published literature has highlighted important gaps in knowledge, which limit our current understanding of rehabilitation of salt-affected soils with organic amendments specially biochar and the associated carbon dynamic. Knowledge about application of biochar in salt-affected soils is scant, and to date, most studies have evaluated biochar use only in nonsalt-affected soils.

Salt-affected soils, reclamation, carbon dynamics, and biochar: a review

Irrigation of agricultural land with saline waters can lead to soil degradation. In this paper the effect of the irrigation with water containing different concentrations of NaCl or Na2SO4 (0.1 M, 0.3 M, 0.6 M, 0.8 M, 1 M, and 1.3 M) on the biological and biochemical characteristics of a calciorthid soil was studied. In general, the increase of scil electrical conductivity caused by the addition of saline solutions had a negative effect on soil's biological and biochemical fertility, (that related directly with the soil's microbiological activity) this effect being more noticeable with NaCl than with Na2SO4. Soil microbial respiration was inhibited as much as 57% by a 1.3 M solution of NaCl. The activity of hydrolases such as protease, β-glucosidase and phosphatase was more negatively affected by salinity than that of oxidoreductases (dehydrogenase and catalase). Soil NO3- content decreased with salinity while NH4+ content increased. Carbohydrate content, which is closely connected with soil aggregate stability, was also negatively affected by salinity.

Influence of salinity on the biological and biochemical activity of a calciorthird soil

Ecology of Soil-Borne Plant Pathogens.

Soil Factors Influencing Formation of Mycorrhizae

The effects of salt stress on levels of soluble carbohydrate, amino acids and proteins in the shoots, roots and exudates of barley were studied under sterile conditions using balanced and unbalanced, high-salt solutions at −500, −1000 and −1500 kPa of osmotic stress Moderate and severe stress with the unbalanced, high-sodium solutions proved toxic to barley, but plants exposed to the low-sodium, balanced solutions remained green and the stems remained turgid after 7 days of treatment Both types of salinity increased the content of soluble carbohydrate in the shoots at all levels of stress and in the roots at −500 and −1000 kPa of stress Carbohydrate in the exudates increased over 20-fold in response to balanced stress, but an apparent 3-fold increase in the exudates from the unbalanced treatments was not significant Sucrose, glucose and fructose remained the principal sugars in the roots and shoots regardless of the type or intensity of stress, but their relative contents varied with treatment Galactose, maltose, ribose and rhamnose were the major sugars in all exudates Protein contents in the tissues fell at each level of balanced and unbalanced stress, but significant changes in protein were not detected in the exudates Stress increased the size of the free amino acid pool in the shoots; however, it stimulated the reverse trend in the roots With the exception of the −500 kPa low-sodium treatment, stress also induced a marked decline in the free amino acid content of the exudates, thus initiating a major limitation on the supply of a key group of metabolites in the rhizosphere

Microbial responses to salt-induced osmotic stress

SUMMARY Balanced and unbalanced high-salt solutions were used to investigate the effects of osmotic stress on microbial activity in the rhizoplane and rhizosphere of barley. Bacteria in the root regions proved sensitive to both high ( - 1500 kPa) and low ( - 500 kPa) levels of each type of stress, but bacterial growth was most severely inhibited in the unbalanced treatments both of which contained high levels of sodium. Similar effects of stress were noted with barley. Distinct qualitative changes in microbial populations in the root zones were observed in the balanced stress treatments, but an increase in species diversity did not occur in the rhizoplane or rhizosphere following exposure to the unbalanced, high-sodium solutions. After five weeks of stress, a marked but transitory rise in rhizoplane counts accompanied death of the seedlings in the - 1500 kPa, high-sodium treatment indicating that at least some of the soil bacteria retain the potential for rapid growth at high salt concentrations.

Microbial responses to salt-induced osmotic stress ii. population changes in the rhizoplane and rhizosphere

Influence des conditions de stress induites par le sodium sur l'activite microbienne et la composition organique des exsudats racinaires de l'orge (Hordeum vulgare CV Clayton)

http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF02197717.pdf

Microbial responses to salt-induced osmotic stress. III: Effects of stress on metabolites in the roots, shoots and rhizosphere of barley

Some observations on the effects of nutrient supply on mycorrhizal development in pine

Microbial responses to salt-induced osmotic stress: IV. A model of a root region

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