Methods to control harmful algal blooms: a review

Spatio-temporal distribution of harmful algal blooms and their correlations with marine hydrological elements in offshore areas, China

Blooms of microalgal red tides and macroalgae (e.g., green and golden tides caused by Ulva and Sargassum) have caused widespread problems around China in recent years, but there is uncertainty around what triggers these blooms and how they interact. Here, we use 30 years of monitoring data to help answer these questions, focusing on the four main species of microalgae Prorocentrum donghaiense, Karenia mikimotoi, Noctiluca scintillans, and Skeletonema costatum) associated with red tides in the region. The frequency of red tides increased from 1991 to 2003 and then decreased until 2020, with S. costatum red tides exhibiting the highest rate of decrease. Green tides started to occur around China in 1999 and the frequency of green tides has since been on the increase. Golden tides were first reported to occur around China in 2012. The frequency of macroalgal blooms has a negative linear relationship with the frequency and coverage of red tides around China, and a positive correlation with total nitrogen and phosphorus loads as well as with atmospheric CO2 and sea surface temperature (SST). Increased outbreaks of macroalgal blooms are very likely due to worsening levels of eutrophication, combined with rising CO2 and SST, which contribute to the reduced frequency of red tides. The increasing grazing rate of microzooplankton also results in the decline in areas affected by red tides. This study shows a clear shift of algal blooms from microalgae to macroalgae around China over the past 30 years driven by the combination of eutrophication, climate change, and grazing stress, indicating a fundamental change in coastal systems in the region.

Shift in algal blooms from micro- to macroalgae around China with increasing eutrophication and climate change.

An overview of Prorocentrum donghaiense blooms in China: Species identification, occurrences, ecological consequences, and factors regulating prevalence.

The impacts of harmful algal blooms (HABs) on economies, public health, ecosystems, and aquaculture across the globe have all increased in recent decades, and this has been acutely the case in China. Here, we review the history of HABs and HABs research in China, as well as recent trends in HABs and future prospects of HAB science in China. The most updated analyses demonstrated that the number of HAB events, the number of HAB species, the aerial coverage of HABs, and the impacts of HABs in Chinese waters during the 21st century were all higher than that during the last two decades of the 20th century. The increase in the number of HABs in China has been significantly correlated with the increased discharge of ammonium and total phosphorus into coastal waters (p < 0.01 for both). Notable newly recognized events this century have included chronic HABs caused by Prorocentrum donghaiense and Karenia mikimotoi, a paralytic shellfish poisoning event caused by Gymnodinium catenatum that sickened 80 people, brown tides caused by Aureococcus anophagefferens, green tides caused by Ulva prolifera, golden tides caused by Sargassum horneri, and the disruption of a nuclear power plant caused by a bloom of Phaeocystis globosa. A series of key discoveries regarding HABs has been made this century including documentation of nearly all known HAB toxins in Chinese waters, discovery of novel cyst-formation and/or life stages of multiple HABs-causing species, identification of the chemical and physical oceanographic drivers of multiple HABs including those formed by P. donghaiense, K. mikimotoi, and U. prolifera, and the successful mitigation of HABs via the use of modified clay approaches. Future research prospects highlighted include the use of macroalgae as a means to prevent, mitigate, and control (PCM) HABs and the process by which multi-disciplinary studies involving molecular approaches (omics), remote in situ detection, artificial intelligence, and mega-data analyses might be used to develop refined and realistic HAB forecasting platforms. Collectively, this review demonstrates the significant evolution of HAB science since the 20th century in China and demonstrates that while HABs in China are complex and widespread, recent and on-going discoveries make the development of detailed understanding and effective measures to mitigate the negative effects of HABs a hopeful outcome in the coming years. 

Harmful Algal Blooms in China: History, recent expansion, current status, and future prospects

Emerging harmful algal bloom species over the last four decades in China

Exploration of resting cysts (stages) and their relevance for possibly HABs-causing species in China.

The effect of temperature and salinity on growth rate and azaspiracid cell quotas in two strains of Azadinium poporum (Dinophyceae) from Puget Sound, Washington State.

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Emerging harmful algal bloom species over the last four decades in China

Exploration of resting cysts (stages) and their relevance for possibly HABs-causing species in China.

The effect of temperature and salinity on growth rate and azaspiracid cell quotas in two strains of Azadinium poporum (Dinophyceae) from Puget Sound, Washington State.