The recent advancements in energy storage devices move towards ample storage and harnessing of energy in different forms. This includes batteries, solar cells, fuel cells, and supercapacitors. Transition metal oxides (TMOs) nanocomposite design has dramatically improved electrochemical energy storage and conversion technologies due to its vast performance and good conductivity. Herein, we have compiled a complete list of transition metal oxide composites used as electrode materials in supercapacitor applications. This includes cobalt oxides, manganese, iron, titanium, vanadium, copper, zinc, and various composites for advanced supercapacitor studies. Lastly, inference on the overall performances of different transition metal oxide composites and their advancements has been compiled. 

Hydrothermal Synthesis of Transition Metal Oxides, Transition Metal Oxide/Carbonaceous Material Nanocomposites for Supercapacitor Applications

Manganese dioxide (MnO2) has always been the ideal electrode material for supercapacitors due to its non-toxic nature and high theoretical capacity (1370 F g−1). Over the past few years, significant progress has been made in the development of high performance MnO2-based electrode materials. This review summarizes recent research progress in experimental, simulation and theoretical studies for the modification of MnO2-based electrode materials from different perspectives of morphology engineering, defect engineering and heterojunction engineering. Several main approaches to achieve enhanced electrochemical performance are summarized, respectively increasing the effective active site, intrinsic conductivity and structural stability. On this basis, the future problems and research directions of electrode materials are further envisaged, which provide theoretical guidance for the adequate design and synthesis of MnO2-based electrode materials for use in supercapacitors.

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MnO2-based materials for supercapacitor electrodes: challenges, strategies and prospects

Facile synthesis of flower-like Bi2O3 as an efficient electrode for high performance asymmetric supercapacitor

Structural instability is a major obstacle to realizing the high performance of a MnO2-based pseudocapacitor material. Understanding its structure transformation in the process of electrochemical reaction, therefore, plays an important role in the efficient enhancement of rate capacity and stability. Herein, a stable MnO2@rGO core-shell nanosphere is first synthesized by a liquid-liquid interface deposition further combined with the electrostatic self-assembly method. The structural transformation process of the MnO2@rGO electrode is monitored by ex situ Raman and X-ray diffraction spectroscopy during the charging-discharging process. It is found in the first discharging process that layered-MnO2 transforms into the spinel-Mn3O4 phase with K+ ion intercalation. From the second charging, the spinel-Mn3O4 phase is gradually adjusted to a more stable λ-MnO2 with a three-dimensional tunnel structure, finally realizing the reversible intercalation/deintercalation of K+ ions in the λ-MnO2 tunnel structure during subsequent cycling, which can be attributed to the presence of oxygen vacancies formed by the lengthening of the Mn-O bond and losing oxygen in the MnO6 octahedral unit with K+ ion intercalation/deintercalation. Meanwhile, the MnO2@rGO electrode demonstrates a high specific capacitance of 378 F g-1 at 1 A g-1 and excellent cycling stability with a capacitance retention of up to 89.5% after 10 000 cycles at 10 A g-1. Furthermore, the assembled symmetric micro-supercapacitor delivers a high areal energy density of 1.01 μWh cm-2, superior cycling stability with no significant capacity decay after 8700 cycles, and a capacity retention rate of almost 100% after 2000 bending cycles, showing great mechanical flexibility and practicability.

Spectroscopic Monitoring of the Electrode Process of MnO2@rGO Nanospheres and Its Application in High-Performance Flexible Micro-Supercapacitors.

This research aimed to synthesize non-uniform nanosheet-like tungstate oxide (WO3) using a simple hydrothermal process, which would result in an effective and environment-friendly material for use in supercapacitors (SCs). The resulting materials are thoroughly examined using physio-chemical techniques. The supercapacitive properties of the WO3–Ni-Foam (NF) were examined using 1 M KOH, NaOH, and LiOH electrolytes and further, the electrochemical performance of the WO3–NF electrode was assessed by changing the concentration of KOH electrolytes from 1 to 4 M respectively. The WO3–NF electrode demonstrated the highest specific capacity (Csp) of 70 mAh/g and capacitance (Cs) of 563 F/g with a high energy density of 16 Wh/kg, and power density of 281 W/kg in 2 M KOH electrolyte respectively. Additionally, the WO3–NF electrode showed excellent Columbic efficiency of 98% and long-term capacitive retention of 88% over 5000 cycles in 2 M KOH electrolyte. Additionally, the effect of redox additive (0.01 M of potassium ferrocyanide) improves the electrochemical performance of WO3–NF; the Csp and Cs values were 137 mAh/g, 618 F/g and 100 mAh/g, 800 F/g at 5 mV/s and 5 mA/cm2, respectively. Furthermore, the WO3–NF electrode exhibits good stability retention of 94% over the 2000 cycles. The electrochemical performance of WO3 nanosheets for energy storage applications was improved by this straightforward hydrothermal method and evaluating the effect of redox additive electrolyte. 

Investigating the effect of electrolyte and its concentration dependence on WO3 nanosheet as an efficient electrode for supercapacitors: Effect of Redox Additive

Highly transparent energy storage devices have attracted attention owing to their applications in innovative electronics and displays. However, it is still challenging to fabricate devices with high optical transmittance (Tvis) and areal capacitance (CA) simultaneously, and the capacitance of an electrode with Tvis exceeding 95% has not been reported yet. Here we demonstrate a simple process for fabricating ruthenium oxide (RuO2) nanoparticle (NP)-based ultrathin film electrodes with a Tvis of 97.1% and CA of 0.85 mF cm−2. This high transparency and capacitance are achieved by the deposition of organic ligand-decorated, small (∼2 nm) RuO2 NPs followed by subsequent removal of the ligands. The optical transparency of the electrode can easily be controlled by changing the concentration of the RuO2 NP solution. Efficient contact with the electrolyte and metallic conductivity of the uniformly spread RuO2 NPs result in a significantly high capacitance retention of 81.2% at a scan rate of 1000 mV s−1, the highest reported value. The cycle stability is also considerably improved, and 93.5% of capacitance is retained after 5000 charge–discharge cycles. Furthermore, the monodisperse RuO2 NPs can be uniformly and thinly deposited using a simple spray-coating technique, indicating their applicability to large-area transparent devices.

Monodisperse RuO2 nanoparticles for highly transparent and rapidly responsive supercapacitor electrodes

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Monodisperse RuO2 nanoparticles for highly transparent and rapidly responsive supercapacitor electrodes