With the rapid development of technologies for the fabrication of, as well as applications of low-dimensional structures, the demands on characterization techniques increase. Spatial resolution is especially crucial, where techniques for probing the properties of very small volumes, in the extreme case quantum structures, are essential. In this article we review the state-of-the-art in local probe techniques for studying the properties of nanostructures, concentrating on methods involving monitoring the properties related to photon emission. These techniques are sensitive enough to reveal the electronic structure of low-dimensional semiconductor structures and are, therefore, able to give detailed information about the geometrical structure, including fabrication-related inhomogeneities within an ensemble of structures. The local luminescence probe techniques discussed in this review article can be divided into four categories according to the excitation source: (i) spatially localized microphotoluminescence spectroscopy using either strong focusing or masking; (ii) near-field optical microscopy to reach below the diffraction limitation of far-field optics, by either exciting, detecting, or both exciting and detecting in the near field; (iii) cathodoluminescence using focused energetic electrons in an electron microscope; and (iv) scanning tunneling luminescence, using low-energy electrons injected or extracted from the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope.

Local probe techniques for luminescence studies of low-dimensional semiconductor structures

The analysis of photons emitted from the tip–surface region of an STM has produced new information on local dissipative processes in tunneling. A key objective to extend our work to a general spectroscopic and microscopic method is to collect and detect photons as efficiently as possible and here we describe our experimental arrangements, one of which incorporates an ellipsoidal mirror and the other a lens system to collect the photons. The systems operate in UHV and have in situ sample and tip transfer facilities. Examples of a variety of photon spectroscopy modes including photon spectra, isochromat spectra, angular distributions, and photon mapping are presented.

Photon emission scanning tunneling microscope

We have measured the STM (scanning tunneling microscope) light emission spectra of $\mathrm{Au}(110)\ensuremath{-}(2\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}1)$ at 80 K with atomic spatial resolution. The individual Au atoms along the $(2\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}1)$ rows could be resolved in the STM image. Distinctly different emission spectra are observed depending on whether the tip is located over the atomic row or over the valley between the rows. The spectrum obtained over the row atoms can be ascribed to the emission by localized surface plasmons. The spectrum found over the valley contains emission from excitations atomically localized in the valley.

Scanning Tunneling Microscope Light Emission Spectra of Au ( 110 ) − ( 2 × 1 ) with Atomic Spatial Resolution

The elucidation of the effects of structurally extended defects on electronic properties of materials is especially important in view of the current advances in electronic device development that involve defect control and engineering at the nanometer level. This book surveys the properties, effects, roles and characterization of extended defects in semiconductors. The basic properties of extended defects (dislocations, stacking faults, grain boundaries, and precipitates) are outlined, and their effect on the electronic properties of semiconductors, their role in semiconductor devices, and techniques for their characterization are discussed. These topics are among the central issues in the investigation and applications of semiconductors and in the operation of semiconductor devices. The authors preface their treatment with an introduction to semiconductor materials and conclude with a chapter on point defect maldistributions. This text is suitable for advanced undergraduate and graduate students in materials science and engineering, and for those studying semiconductor physics.

/pdf/extended-defects-in-semiconductors-electronic-properties-2b27o60t46.pdf

Extended Defects in Semiconductors: Electronic Properties, Device Effects and Structures

The method of cross-sectional scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) is described. Illustrative examples are given of studies of III-V semiconductor systems, including AlxGa1-xAs/GaAs superlattices, InAs/GaSb superlattices and low-temperature-grown GaAs. Physical properties studied include alloy clustering, interface roughness, band offsets, quantum subbands and point defects. In each case, STM permits the observation of structural features on an atomic scale. The associated electronic spectroscopy for states a few eV on either side of the Fermi level can be determined. Such information is relevant for the operation of devices constructed from these layered semiconductor systems.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0268-1242/9/12/001/pdf

Cross-sectional scanning tunnelling microscopy of III-V semiconductor structures

Using electroluminescence associated with scanning tunneling microscope in AlxGa1−xAs heterostructures, we show that: (a) luminescence due to recombination can be induced within single quantum wells of dimensions down to a few nm and can also be used to image them, (b) the energy of bulk bands can be determined, and (c) transport parameters can be measured, e.g., the thermalization length and the diffusion length of minority electrons. This technique opens up new possibilities for the study and characterization of semiconductors and devices—including the possibility of studying surface states and single trapping centers associated with lattice defects, impurities, chemisorbed species, etc.

Luminescence in scanning tunneling microscopy on III–V nanostructures

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Luminescence in scanning tunneling microscopy on III–V nanostructures