The ever-growing global threats to human life caused by the human acute respiratory virus (RV) infections have cost billions of lives, created a significant economic burden, and shaped society for centuries. The timely response to emerging RVs could save human lives and reduce the medical care burden. The development of RV detection technologies is essential for potentially preventing RV pandemic and epidemics. However, commonly used detection technologies lack sensitivity, specificity, and speed, thus often failing to provide the rapid turnaround times. To address this problem, new technologies are devised to address the performance inadequacies of the traditional methods. These emerging technologies offer improvements in convenience, speed, flexibility, and portability of point-of-care test (POCT). Herein, recent developments in POCT are comprehensively reviewed for eight typical acute respiratory viruses. This review discusses the challenges and opportunities of various recognition and detection strategies and discusses these according to their detection principles, including nucleic acid amplification, optical POCT, electrochemistry, lateral flow assays, microfluidics, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and microarrays. The importance of limits of detection, throughput, portability, and specificity when testing clinical samples in resource-limited settings is emphasized. Finally, the evaluation of commercial POCT kits for both essential RV diagnosis and clinical-oriented practices is included.

Advanced Point-of-Care Testing Technologies for Human Acute Respiratory Virus Detection.

Surface-enhanced fluorescence (SEF) is rapidly becoming one of the main spectroscopic techniques for the detection of a variety of biomolecules and biomarkers. The main reasons for this trend are the high sensitivity and selectivity, robustness, and speed of this analytical method. Each year, the number of applications that utilize this phenomenon increases and with each such work, the complexity and novelty of the used substrates, procedures, and analytes rises. To obtain a clearer view of this phenomenon and research area, we decided to combine 76 valuable research articles from a variety of different research groups into this mini-review. We present and describe these works concisely and clearly, with a particular interest in the quantitative parameters of the experiment. These sources are classified according to the nature of the analyte, on the contrary to most reviews, which sort them by substrate nature. This point of view gives us insight into the development of this research area and the consequent increase in the complexity of the analyte nature. Moreover, this type of sorting can show possible future routes for the expansion of this research area. Along with the analytes, we can also pay attention to the substrates used for each situation and how the development of substrates affects the direction of research and subsequently, the choice of an analyte. About 108 sources and several interesting trends in the SEF research area over the past 25 years are discussed in this mini-review.

Review: Applications of surface-enhanced fluorescence (SEF) spectroscopy in bio-detection and biosensing.

The coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic was caused by a positive sense single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). However, other human coronaviruses (hCoVs) exist. Historical pandemics include smallpox and influenza, with efficacious therapeutics utilized to reduce overall disease burden through effectively targeting a competent host immune system response. The immune system is composed of primary/secondary lymphoid structures with initially eight types of immune cell types, and many other subtypes, traversing cell membranes utilizing cell signaling cascades that contribute towards clearance of pathogenic proteins. Other proteins discussed include cluster of differentiation (CD) markers, major histocompatibility complexes (MHC), pleiotropic interleukins (IL), and chemokines (CXC). The historical concepts of host immunity are the innate and adaptive immune systems. The adaptive immune system is represented by T cells, B cells, and antibodies. The innate immune system is represented by macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, and the complement system. Other viruses can affect and regulate cell cycle progression for example, in cancers that include human papillomavirus (HPV: cervical carcinoma), Epstein–Barr virus (EBV: lymphoma), Hepatitis B and C (HB/HC: hepatocellular carcinoma) and human T cell Leukemia Virus-1 (T cell leukemia). Bacterial infections also increase the risk of developing cancer (e.g., Helicobacter pylori). Viral and bacterial factors can cause both morbidity and mortality alongside being transmitted within clinical and community settings through affecting a host immune response. Therefore, it is appropriate to contextualize advances in single cell sequencing in conjunction with other laboratory techniques allowing insights into immune cell characterization. These developments offer improved clarity and understanding that overlap with autoimmune conditions that could be affected by innate B cells (B1+ or marginal zone cells) or adaptive T cell responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection and other pathologies. Thus, this review starts with an introduction into host respiratory infection before examining invaluable cellular messenger proteins and then individual immune cell markers.

/pdf/innate-and-adaptive-immunity-during-sars-cov-2-infection-l8zr3rmz.pdf

Innate and Adaptive Immunity during SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Biomolecular Cellular Markers and Mechanisms

Advances in microfluidic device miniaturization and system integration contribute to the development of portable, handheld, and smartphone-compatible devices. These advancements in diagnostics have the potential to revolutionize the approach to detect and respond to future pandemics. Accordingly, herein, recent advances in point-of-care testing (POCT) of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) using various microdevices, including lateral flow assay strips, vertical flow assay strips, microfluidic channels, and paper-based microfluidic devices, are reviewed. However, visual determination of the diagnostic results using only microdevices leads to many false-negative results due to the limited detection sensitivities of these devices. Several POCT systems comprising microdevices integrated with portable optical readers have been developed to address this issue. Since the outbreak of COVID-19, effective POCT strategies for COVID-19 based on optical detection methods have been established. They can be categorized into fluorescence, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy, and wearable sensing. We introduced next-generation pandemic sensing methods incorporating artificial intelligence that can be used to meet global health needs in the future. Additionally, we have discussed appropriate responses of various testing devices to emerging infectious diseases and prospective preventive measures for the post-pandemic era. We believe that this review will be helpful for preparing for future infectious disease outbreaks.

Recent advances in point-of-care testing of COVID-19.

The implementation of low-cost and rapid technologies for the on-site detection of mycotoxin-contaminated crops is a promising solution to address the growing concerns of the agri-food industry. Recently, there have been significant developments in Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) for the direct detection of mycotoxins in food and feed. This review provides an overview of the most recent advancements in the utilization of SERS through the successful fabrication of novel nanostructured materials. Various bottom-up and top-down approaches have demonstrated their potential in improving sensitivity, while many applications exploit the immobilization of recognition elements and molecular imprinted polymers (MIPs) to enhance specificity and reproducibility in complex matrices. Therefore, the design and fabrication of nanomaterials is of utmost importance and are presented herein. We uncover that limited studies establish limits of detection (LODs) or conduct validation using naturally contaminated samples. One decade on, SERS is still lacking significant progress and there is a disconnect between the technology, the European regulatory limits, and the intended end-user. Ongoing challenges and potential solutions are discussed including nanofabrication, molecular binders, and data analytics. Recommendations to assay design, portability, and substrate stability are made to help improve the potential and feasibility of SERS for future on-site agri-food applications. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Advancing Mycotoxin Detection in Food And Feed: Novel Insights from Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2022.123409

Review of COVID-19 testing and diagnostic methods

RNA-based viruses likely make up the highest pandemic threat among all known pathogens in about the last 100 years, since the Spanish Flu of 1918 with 50 M deaths up to COVID-19. Nowadays, an efficient and affordable testing strategy for such viruses have become the paramount target for the fields of virology and bioanalytical chemistry. The detection of the viruses (influenza, hepatitis, HIV, Zika, SARS, Ebola, SARS-CoV-2, etc.) and human antibodies to these viruses is described and tabulated in terms of the reported methods of detection, time to results, accuracy and specificity, if they are reported. The review is focused, but not limited to publications in the last decade. Finally, the limits of detection for each representative publication are tabulated by detection methods and discussed. These methods include PCR, lateral flow immunoassays, LAMP-based methods, ELISA, electrochemical methods (e.g., amperometry, voltammetry), fluorescence spectroscopy, AFM, SPR and SERS spectroscopy, silver staining and CRISPR-Cas based methods, bio-barcode detection, and resonance light scattering. The review is likely to be interesting for various scientists, and particularly helpful with information for establishing interdisciplinary research.

/pdf/detection-of-rna-viruses-from-influenza-and-hiv-to-ebola-and-4i40a7u4p6.pdf

Detection of RNA viruses from influenza and HIV to Ebola and SARS-CoV-2: a review.

The first application of aluminum foil (Al F) as a low-cost/high-availability substrate for sandwich immunoassay using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is reported. Untreated and unmodified Al F and gold film are used as substrates for sandwich SERS immunoassay to detect tuberculosis biomarker MPT64 and human immunoglobulin (hIgG) in less than 24 h. The limits of detection (LODs) for tuberculosis (TB) biomarker MPT64 on Al foil, obtained with commercial antibodies, are about 1.8–1.9 ng/mL, which is comparable to the best LOD (2.1 ng/mL) reported in the literature for sandwich ELISA, made with fresh in-house antibodies. Not only is Al foil competitive with traditional SERS substrate gold for the sandwich SERS immunoassay in terms of LOD, which is in the range 18–30 pM or less than 1 pmol of human IgG, but it also has a large cost/availability advantage over gold film. Moreover, human IgG assays on Al foil and Si showed better selectivity (by about 30–70% on Al foil and at least eightfold on Si) and a nonspecific response to rat or rabbit IgG, in comparison to the selectivity in assays using gold film.

/pdf/aluminum-foil-vs-gold-film-cost-effective-substrate-in-bso46mp3.pdf

Aluminum Foil vs. Gold Film: Cost-Effective Substrate in Sandwich SERS Immunoassays of Biomarkers Reveals Potential for Selectivity Improvement

Likely the first application of silicon wafer as a substrate for sandwich immunoassay with Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) detection is reported hereafter. Human immunoglobulin (hIgG) was used as a model biomarker in the simultaneous comparative assay on gold film and on Si wafer, an alternative (less expensive and potentially more resistant to surface contamination and non-specific binding) substrate. The Limits of Detection calculated from the data obtained with two-laser wavelength (633 nm and 785 nm) were about 1 × 10−12 mol of antigen or less for both substrates, which is close to the minimal detectable concentration of 30 pM. An approximately logarithmic response was observed across at least a factor of 133 in the dynamic range 0.03–4 nM. However, if four parametric logistic curve is used for the calibration, LOD on silicon would become significantly lower than LOD on gold (3 pM vs 28 pM). A much smaller slope of calibration plot was compensated by a significantly smaller standard deviation in the signal of the blank for the assay on silicon, as compared to the assay on gold. This report may encourage researchers to try silicon or other non-noble metal materials as SERS substrates for the detection of biomarkers.

Sandwich SERS immunoassay of human immunoglobulin on silicon wafer compared to traditional SERS substrate, gold film

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Review of COVID-19 testing and diagnostic methods

Detection of RNA viruses from influenza and HIV to Ebola and SARS-CoV-2: a review.

Aluminum Foil vs. Gold Film: Cost-Effective Substrate in Sandwich SERS Immunoassays of Biomarkers Reveals Potential for Selectivity Improvement

Sandwich SERS immunoassay of human immunoglobulin on silicon wafer compared to traditional SERS substrate, gold film