Application of chitosan and its derivatives as adsorbents for dye removal from water and wastewater: a review.

Classically all vaccines were produced using live or attenuated microorganisms or parts of them. However, the use of whole organisms, their components or the biological process for vaccine production has several weaknesses. The presence of immunologically redundant biological components or biological impurities in such vaccines might cause major problems. All the disadvantageous of traditional vaccines might be overcome via the development of fully synthetic peptide-based vaccines. However, once minimal antigenic epitopes only are applied for immunisation, the immune responses are poor. The use of an adjuvant can overcome this obstacle; however, it may raise new glitches. Here we briefly summarise the current stand on peptide-based vaccines, discuss epitope and adjuvant design, and multi-epitope and nanoparticle-based vaccine approaches. This mini review discusses also the disadvantages and benefits associated with peptide-based vaccines. It proposes possible methods to overcome the weaknesses of the synthetic vaccine strategy and suggests future directions for its development.

/pdf/peptide-based-synthetic-vaccines-4g6w16yie3.pdf

Peptide-based synthetic vaccines

In agriculture, current control of pathogens relies mainly on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. However, alternative solutions are needed due to concerns for public health, environmental protection, and development of resistant pests. Chitosan is a nontoxic, biodegradable biopolymer showing antimicrobial and plant-immunity eliciting properties. Here, we review chitosan antimicrobial activities, modes of action, and the elicitation of plant defense responses. The major points are the following: (1) Chitosan exhibits various inhibitory efficiency against bacteria, fungi, and viruses; (2) the five main modes of action of chitosan are electrostatic interactions, plasma membrane damage mechanism, chitosan-DNA/RNA interactions, metal chelation capacity of chitosan, and deposition onto the microbial surface; (3) the elicitation of plant defense responses by chitosan may be related to various pathogenesis-related proteins, defense-related enzymes, and secondary metabolites accumulation, as well as the complex signal transduction network. The facing problems and strategies for antimicrobial mechanism research and agricultural application of chitosan are also discussed.

/pdf/chitosan-antimicrobial-and-eliciting-properties-for-pest-4onc4kzsqu.pdf

Chitosan antimicrobial and eliciting properties for pest control in agriculture: a review

Tailoring of chitosan through the involvement of its amino, acetamido, and hydroxy groups can give derivatives of enhanced solubility and remarkable anticancer activity. The general mechanism of such activity is associated with the disturbances in normal functioning of cell cycle, interference to the central dogma of biological system from DNA to RNA to protein or enzymatic synthesis, and the disruption of hormonal path to biosynthesis to inhibit the growth of cancer cells. Both chitosan and its various derivatives have been reported to selectively permeate through the cancer cell membranes and show anticancer activity through the cellular enzymatic, antiangiogenic, immunoenhancing, antioxidant defense mechanism, and apoptotic pathways. They get sequestered from noncancer cells and provide their enhanced bioavailability in cancer cells in a sustained release manner. This review presents the putative mechanisms of anticancer activity of chitosan and mechanistic approaches of structure activity relation upon the modification of chitosan through functionalization, complex formation, and graft copolymerization to give different derivatives.

/pdf/anticancer-activity-of-chitosan-chitosan-derivatives-and-4lngxn1b1v.pdf

Anticancer Activity of Chitosan, Chitosan Derivatives, and Their Mechanism of Action

Chitin, a potential allergy-promoting pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP), is a linear polymer composed of N-acetylglucosamine residues which are linked by β-(1,4)-glycosidic bonds. Mammalians are potential hosts for chitin-containing protozoa, fungi, arthropods, and nematodes; however, mammalians themselves do not synthetize chitin and thus it is considered as a potential target for recognition by mammalian immune system. Chitin is sensed primarily in the lungs or gut where it activates a variety of innate (eosinophils, macrophages) and adaptive immune cells (IL-4/IL-13 expressing T helper type-2 lymphocytes). Chitin induces cytokine production, leukocyte recruitment, and alternative macrophage activation. Intranasal or intraperitoneal administration of chitin (varying in size, degree of acetylation and purity) to mice has been applied as a routine approach to investigate chitin’s priming effects on innate and adaptive immunity. Structural chitin present in microorganisms is actively degraded by host true chitinases, including acidic mammalian chitinases and chitotriosidase into smaller fragments that can be sensed by mammalian receptors such as FIBCD1, NKR-P1, and RegIIIc. Immune recognition of chitin also involves pattern recognition receptors, mainly via TLR-2 and Dectin-1, to activate immune cells to induce cytokine production and creation of an immune network that results in inflammatory and allergic responses. In this review, we will focus on various immunological aspects of the interaction between chitin and host immune system such as sensing, interactions with immune cells, chitinases as chitin degrading enzymes, and immunologic applications of chitin.

/pdf/chitin-and-its-effects-on-inflammatory-and-immune-responses-2sqszk64qy.pdf

Chitin and Its Effects on Inflammatory and Immune Responses

With the development of cancer immunotherapy, cancer vaccine has become a novel modality for cancer treatment, and the important role of adjuvant has been realized recently. Chitin, chitosan, and their derivatives have shown their advantages as adjuvants for cancer vaccine. In this paper, the adjuvant properties of chitin and chitosan were discussed, and some detailed information about glycated chitosan and chitosan nanoparticles was also presented to illustrate the trend for future development.

/pdf/chitin-chitosan-and-glycated-chitosan-regulate-immune-270lbyk36r.pdf

Chitin, Chitosan, and Glycated Chitosan Regulate Immune Responses: The Novel Adjuvants for Cancer Vaccine

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Chitin, Chitosan, and Glycated Chitosan Regulate Immune Responses: The Novel Adjuvants for Cancer Vaccine