Tin dioxide (SnO2), the most stable oxide of tin, is a metal oxide semiconductor that finds its use in a number of applications due to its interesting energy band gap that is easily tunable by doping with foreign elements or by nanostructured design such as thin film, nanowire or nanoparticle formation, etc., and its excellent thermal, mechanical and chemical stability. In particular, its earth abundance and non-toxicity make it very attractive for use in a number of technologies for sustainable development such as energy harvesting and storage. This article attempts to review the state of the art of synthesis and properties of SnO2, focusing primarily on its application as a transparent conductive oxide (TCO) in various optoelectronic devices and second in energy harvesting and energy storage devices where it finds its use as an electron transport layer (ETL) and an electrode material, respectively. In doing so, we discuss how tin oxide meets the requirements for the above applications, the challenges associated with these applications, and how its performance can be further improved by adopting various strategies such as doping with foreign metals, functionalization with plasma, etc. The article begins with a review on the various experimental approaches to doping of SnO2 with foreign elements for its enhanced performance as a TCO as well as related computational studies. Herein, we also compare the TCO performance of doped tin oxide as a function of dopants such as fluorine (F), antimony (Sb), tantalum (Ta), tungsten (W), molybdenum (Mo), phosphorus (P), and gallium (Ga). We also discuss the properties of multilayer SnO2/metal/SnO2 structures with respect to TCO performance. Next, we review the status of tin oxide as a TCO and an ETL in devices such as organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs), organic photovoltaics (OPV), and perovskite solar cells (including plasma treatment approaches) followed by its use in building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) applications. Next, we review the impact of SnO2, mainly as an electrode material on energy storage devices starting from the most popular lithium (Li)-ion batteries to Li–sulfur batteries and finally to the rapidly emerging technology of supercapacitors. Finally, we also compare the performance of doped SnO2 with gallium (Ga) doped zinc oxide (ZnO), the main sustainable alternative to SnO2 as a TCO and summarize the impact of SnO2 on circular economies and discuss the main conclusions and future perspectives. It is expected that the review will serve as an authoritative reference for researchers and policy makers interested in finding out how SnO2 can contribute to the circular economy of some of the most desired sustainable and clean energy technologies including the detailed experimental methods of synthesis and strategies for performance enhancement.

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Tin oxide for optoelectronic, photovoltaic and energy storage devices: a review

Gallium oxide (Ga2O3) is rapidly emerging as a material of choice for the development of solar blind photodetectors and power electronic devices which are particularly suitable in harsh environment applications, owing to its wide bandgap and extremely high Baliga figure of merit (BFOM). The Ga2O3 based devices show robustness against chemical, thermal and radiation environments. Unfortunately, the current Ga2O3 technology is still not mature for commercial usage., Thus, extensive research on the growth of various polymorph of Ga2O3 materials has been carried out. This article aims to provide an overview of the current understanding of epitaxial growth of different phases of Ga2O3 by various growth techniques including pulsed laser deposition (PLD), molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), metal-organic chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD), sputtering, mist chemical vapour deposition (Mist CVD) and atomic layer deposition (ALD).The review also investigates the factors such as the growth temperature, pressure, carrier gas, III/V ratio, substrate as well as doping which would influence the synthesis and the stability of meta stable phases of Ga2O3. In addition, a through discussion of growth window is also provided using phase diagrams for aforementioned epitaxial deposition methods.

Recent advances in the growth of gallium oxide thin films employing various growth techniques- A review

Excessive use of insecticides in agriculture has raised a global concern owing to their environmental pollution. Various techniques are utilized for removal these compounds which one of the most efficient methods is photocatalytic degradation by heterojunction nanocomposites. Herein, a direct Z-scheme heterojunction nanocomposite with abundant oxygen vacancy defects was fabricated via simple hydrothermal treatment of WO3 nanoplate and SrTiO3 nanoparticle and was utilized as a powerful photocatalyst for decomposition of nitenpyram insecticide under illumination of simulated sunlight. The findings revealed that, the heterojunction nanocomposite with 30wt% of SrTiO3 has the best photocatalytic efficiency. Improvement of the photocatalytic ability may be ascribed to the existence of oxygen vacancy defects in heterojunction interfaces between two semiconductors, facilitating of charge carriers separation, and effective generation of the •O2− and •OH radicals. Furthermore, from the results of the radical capture studies, ESR techniques, and Mott-Schottky analyses, it can be concluded that the hydroxyl radical is the major oxidant for degradation of nitenpyram, and by modulating the charge carrier dynamics and regulation of the charge transfer pathways, a direct Z-scheme heterojunction nanocomposite is formed with improved photocatalytic efficiency. Additionally, the possible decomposition intermediates of nitenpyram were detected from the HPLC-MS analysis. 

Synthesis of novel direct Z-scheme heterojunction photocatalyst from WO3 nanoplates and SrTiO3 nanoparticles with abundant oxygen vacancies

Potential progress in SnO2 nanostructures for enhancing photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants

Wafer bonding technology is one of the most effective methods for high-quality thin-film transfer onto different substrates combined with ion implantation processes, laser irradiation, and the removal of the sacrificial layers. In this review, we systematically summarize and introduce applications of the thin films obtained by wafer bonding technology in the fields of electronics, optical devices, on-chip integrated mid-infrared sensors, and wearable sensors. The fabrication of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers based on the Smart CutTM process, heterogeneous integrations of wide-bandgap semiconductors, infrared materials, and electro-optical crystals via wafer bonding technology for thin-film transfer are orderly presented. Furthermore, device design and fabrication progress based on the platforms mentioned above is highlighted in this work. They demonstrate that the transferred films can satisfy high-performance power electronics, molecular sensors, and high-speed modulators for the next generation applications beyond 5G. Moreover, flexible composite structures prepared by the wafer bonding and de-bonding methods towards wearable electronics are reported. Finally, the outlooks and conclusions about the further development of heterogeneous structures that need to be achieved by the wafer bonding technology are discussed.

Heterogeneous Wafer Bonding Technology and Thin-Film Transfer Technology-Enabling Platform for the Next Generation Applications beyond 5G.

Characterization of single crystal β-Ga2O3 films grown on SrTiO3 (100) substrates by MOCVD

Ta-Doped Ga2O3 Epitaxial Films on Porous p-GaN Substrates: Structure and Self-Powered Solar-Blind Photodetectors

UV–vis transparent conducting Ta-doped SnO2 epitaxial films grown by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition

High responsivity self-powered DUV photodetectors based on β-Ga2O3/GaN heterogeneous PN junctions

Structural, photoelectrical and photoluminescence properties of Ta-doped SnO2 monocrystal films grown on MgF2 (110) substrates

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