The field experiment was conducted during rabi 2013–14 and 2014–15 at Agricultural Research Station, Sumerpur, Pali (Rajasthan), India to find out suitable organic nutrient management practices for higher productivity and economics of wheat in Luni basin region of Rajasthan. The experiment was laid out in RBD with seven treatments. The results in terms of growth and yield attributes, grain yield and economics of wheat under different treatments were significantly different than control. Pooled data of two years’ experimentation revealed that the maximum plant height (85.83 cm), number of tillers per meter row length (91.00), number of seed per ear head (55.18), ear head length (9.60 cm), test weight (37.17 g) and grain yield (39.14 q ha−1) were recorded with application of FYM @ 10 t ha−1+Vermicompost @ 1.25 t ha−1 followed by treatment FYM @ 5 t ha−1+Neem green leaves @ 2 t ha−1+Vermicompost @ 1.25 t ha−1. Net return was recorded significantly highest with FYM @ 10 t ha−1+ Vermicompost @ 1.25 t ha−1 whereas B: C ratio (2.43) was highest with FYM @ 5 t ha−1+Neem green leaves @ 2 t ha−1+Vermicompost @ 1.25 t ha−1. Application of FYM @ 5 t ha−1+Neem green leaves @ 2 t ha−1+Vermicompost @ 1.25 t ha−1 led to increase grain yield by 94.84% significantly over control (19.0 q ha−1). Hence, the finding suggested that the integration of FYM @ 5 t ha−1+Neem green leaves @ 2 t ha−1+Vermicompost @ 1.25 t ha−1 increased yields of organic wheat in semi arid regions.

/pdf/impact-of-organic-nutrient-management-practices-on-yield-v0g0ut0l8p.pdf

Impact of Organic Nutrient Management Practices on Yield Attributes, Yield and Economics of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Clay–organic complexes (COC) impart chemical and physical protection to soil carbon (C). In the present study, the aim was to assess the long-term effects of different organic amendments on C stability in COC, distribution of the aggregates, C concentration in the aggregates and labile organic C fractions in the inceptisols located at the research farm situated in the semi-arid sub-tropical climate of India. The results showed that the COC, the percentage of large macroaggregates (LMA) (>2 mm) and the C associated with the aggregates decreased through the soil depths, whereas the other size fractions of soil aggregates (<2 mm) showed an increasing trend. The COC was significantly higher (4.4 times) in soil treatments where farmyard manures (FYM), green manure (GM) and biofertilizers (BF) were applied together (FYM + GM + BF). The organic amendments increased the proportion of LMA over control (no application of organic amendments) to a magnitude of 83 to 101% and the C associated with LMA to a magnitude of 0.48 to 9.8% over control in surface soil. On average, the combined application of FYM, GM and BF exhibited higher C accumulation in almost all soil aggregate fractions, except microaggregates (mA), i.e., (0.25–0.053 mm) size fractions, where application of FYM alone recorded the highest value. Averaged over soil depths, the particulate organic C (POC), dissolved organic C (DOC) and potassium permanganate oxidizable C (POXC) were significantly higher under integrated organic treatments than individual amendments. The significantly higher correlation between COC and the percentage of LMA and aggregate-associated C implied their direct role in soil aggregate formation and their stability. The carbon stability, i.e., retention time of humus in soil, was significantly correlated with soil organic carbon, dissolved organic carbon, particulate organic carbon, potassium permanganate oxidizable C, C mineralization (Cmin), glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP), macroaggregate (MA)-associated C and rice equivalent yield (REY). Overall, the data suggest that the combined application of FYM + GM + BF promotes soil quality under rice–wheat rotation in inceptisols in semi-arid sub-tropical India.

/pdf/long-term-effects-of-organic-amendments-on-carbon-stability-318e6ko0.pdf

Long-Term Effects of Organic Amendments on Carbon Stability in Clay–Organic Complex and Its Role in Soil Aggregation

Recently conservation agriculture (CA) using the principles of zero tillage, crop residue management and suitable crop rotation has gained the momentum and quite popular among the farmers. Researchers throughout the globe have shown the potential of CA in enriching soil organic carbon storage in various soil types and cropping systems. But there is very limited study on the effect of CA on soil humic acid content and their stability and abundance of functional groups. An experiment was conducted in an Alfisols with four scenarios (designated as Sc) namely conventional farmers practice (Sc1) of transplanted rice (TPR) followed by conventional tilled broadcasted wheat (CT- wheat) with residue removal, transplanted rice (TPR) followed by zero tillage (ZT) wheat and mung bean with partial residue retention (Sc2), direct seeded rice (DSR) followed by ZT- wheat and mung bean with full residue retention (Sc3), ZT-maize followed by ZT-wheat and mung bean (Sc4) at the research farm of ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India. The objectives of this study were to assess the humic acid (HA) content and stability of soil carbon through desorption study and to characterize the functional groups of HA by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy under different scenarios. HA was extracted from soil samples collected from 0 to 15 and 15–30 cm depth after rice harvesting in 2018 after nine years of the experiment. Results showed that Sc4 recorded significantly highest HA content at 0–15 depth (4.23 g/kg) and 15–30 cm soil depth (2.08 g/kg). Lower E4/E6 ratio revealed higher stability and humification of humic acid carbon under CA based scenarios. Lowest desorption rate constant (0.20/day) was observed under Sc4 indicating higher organic carbon stability in soil. Higher labile carbon and nitrogen was observed in soils under Sc3 as revealed through desorption study. FTIR spectroscopy results confirmed the prevalence of higher number of functional groups (O C O, C O or CHO) in HA under CA based scenarios with an order of Sc4 >Sc3 >Sc2 >Sc1. Therefore, CA is not only efficient in enriching the organic carbon in soil but also in more stable complex of HA with soil particles having long term implications in soil carbon sequestration for future posterity.

Stability of humic acid carbon under conservation agriculture practices

The effect of chemical pre-treatment on identification and semi-quantification of clay minerals by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was studied in soils (0–15 cm) collected from four ongoing long-term (31 years) experiments located at Ludhiana (Inceptisol), Jabalpur (Vertisol), Pantnagar (Mollisol) and Ranchi (Alfisol) under five treatments with different combinations of organic and inorganic nutrient sources. From each soil, clay (with pre-treatment) and colloidal organo-mineral fraction or COMF (without pre-treatment) were isolated for XRD analyses. The identification and semi-quantification of clay minerals from pre-treated clay have already been reported (Das et al. in Sci Total Environ 684:682–693, 2019). Here, the aim was to identify the soil type(s) where such pre-treatment can be avoided without compromising accuracy of mineral identification and semi-quantification. Among the soil orders, Alfisol showed the least variation in X-ray diffractograms between clay and COMF, whereas variation was the highest in Vertisol. Irrespective of soil orders, illite and illite-rich interstratified minerals (IRM) and kaolinite and kaolinite-rich interstratified mineral (KRM) peaks were least affected by the presence of organic C and amorphous Fe oxide in COMF, whereas peaks of smectite or smectite-rich interstratified minerals (SRM) were affected the most. Chlorite peak was distorted due to chemical pre-treatment with large amounts of H2O2 for removal of organic matter from Mollisol. Overall, the results indicated that identification and semi-quantification of clay minerals by XRD can be done with reasonable accuracy even without chemical pre-treatment in Alfisol dominated by KRM and IRM. In Inceptisol, Vertisol and Mollisol, the same appeared to be less appropriate.

Effect of Chemical Pre-treatment for Identification of Clay Minerals in Four Soil Orders by X-ray Diffraction Technique

In twenty-first century, climate change is considered a serious issue for mankind. Producing sufficient food for the burgeoning population is also a great challenge. The accelerated increase in atmospheric CO2 level during the last decades aggravates the risks of global warming, soil degradation and desertification, and environmental pollution. Soil is the biggest terrestrial sink of carbon (C) and stores nearly 3 times of the atmospheric C pool and 4.5 times of the biotic C pool and thus maintains the global C cycle. Therefore, any change in the atmospheric C could be the result in modification of soil C. However, the C stabilization as well as subsequent sequestration in soil is greatly affected by different climatic and soil factors like land-use change, soil type, nature of organics present in soil, management practices, diversity of soil microorganism, rainfall, temperature, etc. The content and type of clay minerals affect the C stabilization by forming clayorganic complex in soil, whereas the recommended management practices such as conservation tillage, proper crop rotation, integrated use of inorganic and organic fertilizers, etc., play a vital role in sustaining soil quality and sequestering higher amounts of organic C in soil. Besides, land-use management has tremendous potential to sequester SOC and also reclamation of degraded salt-affected lands through suitable tolerant tree species may not only increase the area under forest but also subsequently fixes atmospheric CO2 into soil. The diversity and activity of soil microbes which affect the SOC sequestration by respiration and fixation mechanisms are very sensitive to change in soil temperature and moisture. The SOC also plays an incomparable role for sustaining soil quality which is very important for agricultural sustainability. Hence, sequestration of C in soil is very crucial to mitigate the effect of climate change by reducing the greenhouse gases emission and also to improve the soil quality for better crop productivity in sustainable manner.

Soil Carbon Sequestration for Soil Quality Improvement and Climate Change Mitigation

Understanding the mechanism of soil organic carbon (SOC) stabilisation may help in developing management strategies for SOC storage. A long-term organically managed rice−wheat cropping system was used for SOC stabilisation study. Soil samples were collected from control, FYM (farmyard manure to rice and wheat), GM (green manure; Sesbania aculeata to rice and Leucaena leucocephala to wheat), GB (GM with biofertiliser; blue green algae to rice and Azotobacter sp. to wheat), GF (GM with FYM), GFB (GM with FYM and biofertiliser). Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)-resistant C correlated significantly with ammonium oxalate and dithionate extractable Fe, Al and Si in soil. The GFB showed the highest enrichment of SOC (32%) as well as NaOCl-resistant C (22%) at 0–15 cm soil depth. At higher soil depth, GM alone showed the highest enrichment of SOC (39% at 15–30 cm, 84% at 30–60 cm). The NaOCl-resistant C was higher in FYM and GFB treatments at 15–30 and 30–60 cm depths respectively. The proportion of NaOCl-resistant C to SOC increased down the profile and was highest (30–52%) in 30–60 cm soil depth. A multiple regression model developed between ammonium oxalate extractable Fe, Al and Si and SOC could well predict the stable SOC content. There was a substantial improvement in prediction when extractable Fe, Al and Si were combined together. Among the organic treatments, GFB showed the highest humification and aromaticity in humic acid with least polarity and more reduced form. The combination of all the organic sources (GFB) could be a promising nutrient management strategy for enhancing the stability of SOC in rice–wheat cropping systems of semiarid subtropical India.

Impact of continuous organic manuring on mechanisms and processes of the stabilisation of soil organic C under rice–wheat cropping system

A field experiment was conducted at the research farm of Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi on a sandy clay-loam soil (Typic Ustochrept) starting from Kharif-2003 under organic amendments to rice-wheat cropping system. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with three replications and six treatments in a set. The treatments consisted of control (T1), farmyard manure (FYM) (T2); green manure (GM) (T3); GM+biofertilizers (B) (T4); GM+FYM (T5); and GM+FYM+B (T6). In this study, the effect of organic amendments were evaluated on some physical soil properties and yield of the respective system by sampling the soil from three depths (0–15, 15–30 and 30–60 cm) at the end of Rabi 2011–2012. The results of the study revealed that the plots where, farm yard manure (FYM) was incorporated along with green manure (GM) and biofertilizer (B), the yield of rice and wheat had substantially improved. The combination of B with GM+FYM had not only led to better soil bulk density but even prove superior to FYM alone or GM alone. Soil aggregation was significantly affected by organic amendments; particularly mean weight diameter (MWD) and geometric mean diameter (GMD) were increased to a tune of 73.5% and 34.6% over control in 0–15 cm soil layer. The water stable macroaggregate (WSMA)>0.25mm ranged from 54.60% under control to 71.27% under T6 in the surface soil (0–15 cm). The combined applications of FYM along with GM and B showed the highest contents of available N, P, K and S in soil. It is thus certain that the cumulative effect of GM+FYM+B proved to be the one that leads to increased productivity as well as increased soil physical properties.

Long-term Effect of Organic Manures and Biofertilizers on Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil and Productivity of Rice-Wheat System

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Impact of continuous organic manuring on mechanisms and processes of the stabilisation of soil organic C under rice–wheat cropping system

Long-term Effect of Organic Manures and Biofertilizers on Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil and Productivity of Rice-Wheat System