Environmental problems, such as global warming and plastic pollution have forced researchers to investigate alternatives for conventional plastics. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA), one of the well-known eco-friendly biodegradables and biobased polyesters, has been studied extensively and is considered to be a promising substitute to petroleum-based polymers. This review gives an inclusive overview of the current research of lactic acid and lactide dimer techniques along with the production of PLA from its monomers. Melt polycondensation as well as ring opening polymerization techniques are discussed, and the effect of various catalysts and polymerization conditions is thoroughly presented. Reaction mechanisms are also reviewed. However, due to the competitive decomposition reactions, in the most cases low or medium molecular weight (MW) of PLA, not exceeding 20,000-50,000 g/mol, are prepared. For this reason, additional procedures such as solid state polycondensation (SSP) and chain extension (CE) reaching MW ranging from 80,000 up to 250,000 g/mol are extensively investigated here. Lastly, numerous practical applications of PLA in various fields of industry, technical challenges and limitations of PLA use as well as its future perspectives are also reported in this review.

Poly(lactic Acid): A Versatile Biobased Polymer for the Future with Multifunctional Properties-From Monomer Synthesis, Polymerization Techniques and Molecular Weight Increase to PLA Applications.

Polylactic acid (PLA) is the most widely used raw material in extrusion-based three-dimensional (3D) printing (fused deposition modeling, FDM approach) in many areas since it is biodegradable and environmentally friendly, however its utilization is limited due to some of its disadvantages such as mechanical weakness, water solubility rate, etc. FDM is a simple and more cost-effective fabrication process compared to other 3D printing techniques. Unfortunately, there are deficiencies of the FDM approach, such as mechanical weakness of the FDM parts compared to the parts produced by the conventional injection and compression molding methods. Preparation of PLA composites with suitable additives is the most useful technique to improve the properties of the 3D-printed PLA parts obtained by the FDM method. In the last decade, newly developed PLA composites find large usage areas both in academic and industrial circles. This review focuses on the chemistry and properties of pure PLA and also the preparation methods of the PLA composites which will be used as a raw material in 3D printers. The main drawbacks of the pure PLA filaments and the necessity for the preparation of PLA composites which will be employed in the FDM-based 3D printing applications is also discussed in the first part. The current methods to obtain PLA composites as raw materials to be used as filaments in the extrusion-based 3D printing are given in the second part. The applications of the novel PLA composites by utilizing the FDM-based 3D printing technology in the fields of biomedical, tissue engineering, human bone repair, antibacterial, bioprinting, electrical conductivity, electromagnetic, sensor, battery, automotive, aviation, four-dimensional (4D) printing, smart textile, environmental, and luminescence applications are presented and critically discussed in the third part of this review.

Extrusion-Based 3D Printing Applications of PLA Composites: A Review

Recent advances in 3D-printed polylactide and polycaprolactone-based biomaterials for tissue engineering applications.

Electromagnetic interference has become a serious pollution concern in modern society, which has significantly driven the development of lightweight electromagnetic interference shielding materials based on porous carbon/polymer nanocomposites. This work discusses the state-of-the-art methods for fabricating polymer foams and carbon foams, aerogels, and sponges for electromagnetic interference shielding. In order to obtain an ideal electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness, it is crucial to create carbon/polymer nanocomposites with effective conductive networks at low filler loadings. To this end, there have been three design strategies, including the use of carbon foams with polymer backfilling, the use of carbon-based hybrid fillers, and the formation of segregated structures in conductive polymer composite. This review also discusses electrical conductivity and electromagnetic interference shielding performances as well as associated mechanisms behind of lightweight carbon-polymer nanocomposites, and their potential applications are summarized. Some key challenges on lightweight polymer-carbon nanocomposites as electromagnetic interference shielding materials are presented followed by some future perspectives.

Lightweight high-performance carbon-polymer nanocomposites for electromagnetic interference shielding

In recent decades, demand for sustainable materials in place of low cost and high strength materials has been trigged globally, which has motivated researchers towards biocomposites/green composites. The PLA has been the most promising matrix material for suistanable biocomposites owing to its biodegradability, good availability, eco-friendliness, antibacterial property, and good mechanical and thermal properties. The PLA-based biocomposites are economical, full/partial biodegradable depends upon types of reinforcement, light in weight, and also offer good thermal and mechanical properties. A number of research works have been performed on PLA and its biocomposites to explore their potential for sustainable products. However, no comprehensive review with up-to-date research data on PLA and its biocomposites are reported so far. This fact motivated to summerize the reported studies on PLA and its biocomposites. The aim of present review is to highlight the current and past trends in the research of PLA and its biocomposites. This review article covers current and past efforts reported by researchers on the synthesis and sustainability of PLA, processing, characterization, applications and future scope of its biocomposites. This study observed that PLA-based composites are the most emerging materials that can replace existing non-biodegradable and non-renewable synthetic materials. The PLA-based biocomposites could be considered as the best source of sustainable products. PLA's mechanical and thermal properties can be enhanced by reinforcing the nano and micro sizes of natural fibers and cellulose. 

PLA Based Biocomposites for Sustainable Products: A Review

Biodegradable poly(lactic acid) (PLA) presents suitable physicochemical properties and biocompatibility for biomedical engineering. However, PLA has some drawbacks, such as low cell adhesion, biological inertness, low degradation rate, and acid degradation by-products. In this review, recent progress on strategies to address these problems is summarized, including novel fabrication techniques, high-performance PLA composites, and their applications for tissue engineering and drug delivery. The scaffolds, especially for bone regeneration, blood vessels, organs, and skin regeneration are evaluated, in terms of in vivo and in vitro biocompatibility and biodegradability. The enhanced mechanical, thermal, and rheological properties of PLA biocomposites are analyzed in detail. PLA biocomposites for drug encapsulation, sustained release, and tumor-targeting are also reviewed. Furthermore, the challenges and future perspectives on PLA-based biocomposites are discussed.

Current applications of poly(lactic acid) composites in tissue engineering and drug delivery

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Current applications of poly(lactic acid) composites in tissue engineering and drug delivery