Effects of processing parameters on pore defects in blue laser directed energy deposition of aluminum by in and ex situ observation

Tungsten (W) and W alloys are considered as primary candidates for plasma-facing components (PFCs) that must perform in severe environments in terms of temperature, neutron fluxes, plasma effects, and irradiation bombardment. These materials are notoriously difficult to produce using additive manufacturing (AM) methods due to issues inherent to these techniques. The progress on applying AM techniques to W-based PFC applications is reviewed and the technical issues in selected manufacturing methods are discussed in this review. Specifically, we focus on the recent development and applications of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), electron beam melting (EBM), and direct energy deposition (DED) in W materials due to their abilities to preserve the properties of W as potential PFCs. Additionally, the existing literature on irradiation effects on W and W alloys is surveyed, with possible solutions to those issues therein addressed. Finally, the gaps in possible future research on additively manufactured W are identified and outlined.

Progress and Challenges of Additive Manufacturing of Tungsten and Alloys as Plasma-Facing Materials

In this study, the manufacturing of a two-layered functionally graded 316L stainless steel-tungsten carbide coating using directed energy deposition was investigated. The aim was to determine the optimal deposition parameters to achieve minimum porosity using a thickness of 1mm per layer. The input factors considered were laser scanning power and scanning speed, which were varied at different levels according to a full factorial design of an experimental matrix. To determine the optimum parameters regression analysis using analysis of variance was carried out. The optimum parameters were found at a laser scanning power of 607.4 W and a scanning speed of 8.5 mm/s for the first coated layer, and at a laser scanning power of 700 W and a scanning speed of 11 mm/s for the second coated layer. Minimum porosities of 0.0065 % and 0.0554 % were achieved for each coated layer respectively.

Regression analysis and optimization of direct energy deposition parameters for functionally graded 316L stainless steel-tungsten carbide coatings

Additively manufactured components often show insufficient component quality due to the formation of different defects. Defects such as porosity result in material inhomogeneity and structural integrity issues. The integration of in-process monitoring in machining processes facilitates the identification of inhomogeneity characteristics in manufacturing, which is crucial for process adaptation. The incorporation of artificial defects in components has the potential to mimic and study the behaviour of real-world defects in a more controlled way. This study highlights the potential benefits of cutting force and vibration monitoring during machining operations with the goal of providing insights into the machining behaviours and the effects of the artificially introduced defects on the process. Detection of anomalies relies on identifying changes in force profiles or vibration patterns that might indicate the interaction between the tool and the defect. Machine learning algorithms were used to process and interpret the collected data. The algorithms are trained to recognize patterns, anomalies, or deviations from expected behaviours, which can aid in evaluating the effect of detected defects on the machining process and the resultant component quality. The main objective of this study is to contribute to enhancing quality control of machining processes for inhomogeneous materials.

pdf/in-process-monitoring-of-inhomogeneous-material-2g8ywp934i.pdf

In-Process Monitoring of Inhomogeneous Material Characteristics Based on Machine Learning for Future Application in Additive Manufacturing

The Challenges and Advances in Recycling/Re-Using Powder for Metal 3D Printing: A Comprehensive Review

In the current scenario, a decline in the natural deposits of copper and its alloys has called for the efficient usage of bronze in mechanical components. The development of additive manufacturing processes such as Directed Energy Deposition (DED) provides an opportunity to address this issue by replacing complete bronze components such as worm wheels with parts made of less critical raw materials and provided with bronze coatings on the wear-active interfaces. Therefore, this current work focuses on evaluating the deposition of CuSn10 on a steel substrate using DED. Four types of specimens are manufactured, three having deposition of CuSn10 on the steel substrate and one specimen having an initial deposition of CuSn10 + 316L mixture followed by CuSn10. The laser power for the deposition process was varied through the thickness of the deposition with values varying between a minimum of 600 W to a maximum of 1100 W. The specimens were subjected to wear testing under dry conditions to evaluate their friction behavior and to check for debonding between the substrate and deposition. The effect of different laser power on porosity, microstructure, and microhardness was evaluated. The results, when compared with wrought CuSn10, indicated that the DED CuSn10 can be a probable replacement for wrought CuSn10 in worm wheels. 

Wear and material characterization of CuSn10 additively manufactured using directed energy deposition

Mechanical properties of the LMD-processed material Ferro55 in as-built and heat-treated conditions

In today’s manufacturing, additive manufacturing processes enable the production of complicated three-dimensional structures that are hard to be manufactured with traditional manufacturing processes. Due to its high build rate, the laser-based directed energy deposition (DED-LB) process is an attractive and versatile process to manufacture these kinds of components. In addition to the production of components, DED-LB is used for repair or coating applications. The DED-LB process consists of a multitude of complex thermal mechanisms with high heating and cooling rates of 5 × 102 up to 5 × 105 K/s. For materials with high hardness or low thermal conductivity like tool steels, cast iron, or tungsten carbide, these high cooling rates can lead to defects in the microstructure like cracks, pores, or delamination between the substrate and the deposited structures. By preheating the substrate, the cooling rates can be reduced and defects can be eliminated. In this paper, a preheating cycle was developed, which uses the laser of a DMG MORI LT 65 DED hybrid machine as a moving heat source for the substrate preheating. For this cycle, process parameters, a tool path strategy, and a temperature control system were developed. The impact of the elaborated concept was shown by depositing tungsten carbide in a nickel matrix on an S235 steel substrate.

Development of a laser preheating concept for directed energy deposition

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Wear and material characterization of CuSn10 additively manufactured using directed energy deposition

Mechanical properties of the LMD-processed material Ferro55 in as-built and heat-treated conditions

Development of a laser preheating concept for directed energy deposition