This article summarizes the historical development of major advances in humancomputer interaction technology, emphasizing the pivotal role of university research in the advancement of the field.

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A brief history of human-computer interaction technology

The development of cognitive science is one of the most remarkable and fascinating intellectual achievements of the modern era. The quest to understand the mind is as old as recorded human thought; but the progress of modern science has offered new methods and techniques which have revolutionized this enquiry. Oxford University Press now presents a masterful history of cognitive science, told by one of its most eminent practitioners. Cognitive science is the project of understanding the mind by modeling its workings. Psychology is its heart, but it draws together various adjoining fields of research, including artificial intelligence; neuroscientific study of the brain; philosophical investigation of mind, language, logic, and understanding; computational work on logic and reasoning; linguistic research on grammar, semantics, and communication; and anthropological explorations of human similarities and differences. Each discipline, in its own way, asks what the mind is, what it does, how it works, how it developed - how it is even possible. The key distinguishing characteristic of cognitive science, Boden suggests, compared with older ways of thinking about the mind, is the notion of understanding the mind as a kind of machine. She traces the origins of cognitive science back to Descartes's revolutionary ideas, and follows the story through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when the pioneers of psychology and computing appear. Then she guides the reader through the complex interlinked paths along which the study of the mind developed in the twentieth century. Cognitive science, in Boden's broad conception, covers a wide range of aspects of mind: not just 'cognition' in the sense of knowledge or reasoning, but emotion, personality, social communication, and even action. In each area of investigation, Boden introduces the key ideas and the people who developed them. No one else could tell this story as Boden can: she has been an active participant in cognitive science since the 1960s, and has known many of the key figures personally. Her narrative is written in a lively, swift-moving style, enriched by the personal touch of someone who knows the story at first hand. Her history looks forward as well as back: it is her conviction that cognitive science today--and tomorrow--cannot be properly understood without a historical perspective. Mind as Machine will be a rich resource for anyone working on the mind, in any academic discipline, who wants to know how our understanding of our mental activities and capacities has developed.

Mind as Machine: A History of Cognitive Science

There has been a great interest recently in systems that use graphics to aid in the programming, debugging, and understanding of computer programs. The terms “Visual Programming” and “Program Visualization” have been applied to these systems. Also, there has been a renewed interest in using examples to help alleviate the complexity of programming. This technique is called “Programming by Example.” This paper attempts to provide more meaning to these terms by giving precise definitions, and then uses these definitions to classify existing systems into a taxonomy. A number of common unsolved problems with most of these systems are also listed.

Visual programming, programming by example, and program visualization: a taxonomy

Despite causing many debates in human-computer interaction (HCI), the term “metaphor” remains a central element of design practice. This article investigates the history of ideas behind user-interface (UI) metaphor, not only technical developments, but also less familiar perspectives from education, philosophy, and the sociology of science. The historical analysis is complemented by a study of attitudes toward metaphor among HCI researchers 30 years later. Working from these two streams of evidence, we find new insights into the way that theories in HCI are related to interface design, and offer recommendations regarding approaches to future UI design research.

The reification of metaphor as a design tool

In April 1981 Xerox announced the 8010 Star Information System, a new personal computer designed for office professionals who create, analyze, and distribute information. The Star user interface differs from that of other office computer systems by its emphasis on graphics, its adherence to a metaphor of a physical office, and its rigorous application of a small set of design principles. The graphic imagery reduces the amount of typing and remembering required to operate the system. The office metaphor makes the system seem familiar and friendly; it reduces the alien feel that many computer systems have. The design principles unify the nearly two dozen functional areas of Star, increasing the coherence of the system and allowing user experience in one area to apply in others.

The star user interface: an overview

iii Preface The following is a map of this document. Chapters 1,2 --A psychological model of creative thought, forming the basis for the PYGMALION design principles. Chapter 3 --Other projects which adhere to some of the same principles. Chapters 4,5 --The PYGMALION programming environment in detail. Chapter 6 --Examples of PYGMALION programs and data structures. Chapter 7 --Conclusions and suggestions for the future. This paper places equal emphasis oil presenting a psychological model of thought and using the model in a computer environment. Readers interested in aspects of creative thoug.ht which can be assisted by a computer should read chapters I and 2. Readers interested in how the PYGMALION system attempts to stimulate creative thought should look at chapter 6 (mostly pictures) to get the flavor, then read chapters 4 and 5. The works of others which deal with the same aspects are described in chapter 3. Chapter 7 suggests areas for future exploration. Thorough readers will read the chapters in order. Chapter 6 and 4-A through 4-D are a minimal set for readers in a hurry. There are three parts to this report.

Pygmalion: A Computer program to Model and Stimulate Creative Thought

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Pygmalion: A Computer program to Model and Stimulate Creative Thought