A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.

The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 150 studies in which the risk-taking tendencies of male and female participants were compared. Studies were coded with respect to type of task (e.g., self-reported behaviors vs. observed behaviors), task content (e.g., smoking vs. sex), and 5 age levels. Results showed that the average effects for 14 out of 16 types of risk taking were significantly larger than 0 (indicating greater risk taking in male participants) and that nearly half of the effects were greater than .20. However, certain topics (e.g., intellectual risk taking and physical skills) produced larger gender differences than others (e.g., smoking). In addition, the authors found that (a) there were significant shifts in the size of the gender gap between successive age levels, and (b) the gender gap seems to be growing smaller over time. The discussion focuses on the meaning of the results for theories of risk taking and the need for additional studies to clarify age trends.

Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis.

Given assertions of the theoretical, empirical, and practical importance of self-control, this meta-analytic study sought to review evidence concerning the relationship between dispositional self-control and behavior. The authors provide a brief overview over prominent theories of self-control, identifying implicit assumptions surrounding the effects of self-control that warrant empirical testing. They report the results of a meta-analysis of 102 studies (total N = 32,648) investigating the behavioral effects of self-control using the Self-Control Scale, the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, and the Low Self-Control Scale. A small to medium positive effect of self-control on behavior was found for the three scales. Only the Self-Control Scale allowed for a fine-grained analysis of conceptual moderators of the self-control behavior relation. Specifically, self-control (measured by the Self-Control Scale) related similarly to the performance of desired behaviors and the inhibition of undesired behaviors, but its effects varied dramatically across life domains (e.g., achievement, adjustment). In addition, the associations between self-control and behavior were significantly stronger for automatic (as compared to controlled) behavior and for imagined (as compared to actual) behavior.

/pdf/taking-stock-of-self-control-a-meta-analysis-of-how-trait-4o1a2xsgbu.pdf

Taking Stock of Self-Control A Meta-Analysis of How Trait Self-Control Relates to a Wide Range of Behaviors

This article reviews 1 decade of research on cheating in academic institutions. This research demonstrates that cheating is prevalent and that some forms of cheating have increased dramatically in the last 30 years. This research also suggests that although both individual and contextual factors influence cheating, contextual factors, such as students' perceptions of peers' behavior, are the most powerful influence. In addition, an institution's academic integrity programs and policies, such as honor codes, can have a significant influence on students' behavior. Finally, we offer suggestions for managing cheating from students' and faculty members' perspectives.

/pdf/cheating-in-academic-institutions-a-decade-of-research-20kizxx0hy.pdf

Cheating in Academic Institutions: A Decade of Research

/pdf/human-nature-and-the-social-order-3yqr9a7m4c.pdf

Human Nature and the Social Order.

Prior studies have shown that women are less likely than men to be dishonest when confronted with opportunities to cheat. The most common explanation for this finding is sex-role socialization theory: Women are socialized to obey the rules, whereas socialization for men is less binding in this respect. Even so, some women do cheat when given the opportunity. Hence, a theory is needed that accounts for the fact that women engage in dishonest behavior in spite of the restraining forces of internalized normative expectations. Using American college students as subjects, the study examined the relationship between excuse-making tendencies and actual cheating, while controlling for sex. The findings showed that women were significantly more likely to engage in excuse making prior to cheating than were men.

Gender and dishonesty.

Research within the framework of cognitive consistency theory has generally shown that high self-esteem is a deterrent to dishonest behavior. The degree to which this relationship holds across subject sex is unclear, however, because available studies have produced contradictory findings. The present study examined whether the esteem/honesty relationship would be specified by subject sex when focusing on a behavior that is unquestionably more dishonest than behavior studied in prior research, namely, actual cheating on a classroom exam. The findings indicated a significant deterrent effect of high self-esteem for women but not for men. The results are interpreted as supporting the sex-role socialization explanation advanced by Mussen, Rutherford, Harris, and Keasey (1970), who found similar results in a more contrived experimental arrangement.

Self-Esteem and Dishonest Behavior Revisited

In the past, sociologists either dismissed or ignored the well-established empirical relationship between IQ and juvenile delinquency. More recently, however, they have come to accept the IQ/JD connection but now debate the most valid explanation for it. Some have advanced what we characterized as a “school performance” model, while others adhere to what may be called a “school reaction” model. The major bone of contention between the competing models is over the school variables thought to mediate the IQ/JD relationship. In this study, we specified the most dominant versions of the competing models as well as a model integrating the concepts of each. Using three waves of data from the Youth in Transition project, we first estimated parameters for each of the competing models and then parameters for the integrated model. Considered independently, each model was supported by the data. However, when each of the separate models was forced to take into account the explanatory contribution of its competitor, only the school performance model was supported. Implications of the findings for schooling and delinquency are discussed.

IQ and Delinquency: A Test of Two Competing Explanations

Nonexperimental (homicide) and experimental data are used to study the effects of the certainty and severity of punishment. Many deterrence researchers, working without systematic theory of how punishments should operate to influence behavior, have opted for a simple additive model of certainty and severity. However, a satisfaction balance model-a social psychological theory representing a modification of the matching equation and positing interactive effects of certainty and severity-fits both sets of data well and substantially better than an additive model. The implications of the satisfaction balance model for a theory of deterrence are discussed

Modeling the Deterrent Effects of Punishment

A structural model incorporating the effects on subsequent deviance of reactions to previous deviance suggested by both the labeling and specific deterrence arguments, along with other logical effects necessary for correct specification, is formulated and estimated using data concerning peer reactions to classroom cheating. The results are consistent with the traditional labeling argument and contrary to the model of specific deterrence. However, the data suggest that subsequent deviance can also result from the direct effects of initial deviance and from the severity of others’ reactions independently of labeling. At best, one can conclude only that labeling is one among a number of processes by which sanctions influence recidivism.

Deterrence or labeling: The effects of informal sanctions

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