Astaxanthin is a ketocarotenoid, super antioxidant molecule. It has higher antioxidant activity than a range of carotenoids, thus has applications in cosmetics, aquaculture, nutraceuticals, therapeutics, and pharmaceuticals. Naturally, it is derived from Haematococcus pluvialis via a one-stage process or two-stage process. Natural astaxanthin significantly reduces oxidative and free-radical stress as compared to synthetic astaxanthin. The present review summarizes all the aspects of astaxanthin, including its structure, chemistry, bioavailability, and current production technology. Also, this paper gives a detailed mechanism for the potential role of astaxanthin as nutraceuticals for cardiovascular disease prevention, skin protection, antidiabetic and anticancer, cosmetic ingredient, natural food colorant, and feed supplement in poultry and aquaculture. Astaxanthin is one of the high-valued microalgae products of the future. However, due to some risks involved or not having adequate research in terms of long-term consumption, it is still yet to be explored by food industries. Although the cost of naturally derived astaxanthin is high, it accounts for only a 1% share in total astaxanthin available in the global market. Therefore, scientists are looking for ways to cut down the cost of natural astaxanthin to be made available to consumers.

Astaxanthin: A super antioxidant from microalgae and its therapeutic potential.

Carotenoids from fungi and microalgae: A review on their recent production, extraction, and developments.

As the most recognizable natural secondary carotenoid astaxanthin producer, the green microalga Haematococcus pluvialis cultivation is performed via a two-stage process. The first is dedicated to biomass accumulation under growth-favoring conditions (green stage), and the second stage is for astaxanthin evolution under various stress conditions (red stage). This mini-review discusses the further improvement made on astaxanthin production by providing an overview of recent works on H. pluvialis, including the valuable ideas for bioprocess optimization on cell growth, and the current stress-exerting strategies for astaxanthin pigment production. The effects of nutrient constituents, especially nitrogen and carbon sources, and illumination intensity are emphasized during the green stage. On the other hand, the significance of the nitrogen depletion strategy and other exogenous factors comprising salinity, illumination, and temperature are considered for the astaxanthin inducement during the red stage. In short, any factor that interferes with the cellular processes that limit the growth or photosynthesis in the green stage could trigger the encystment process and astaxanthin formation during the red stage. This review provides an insight regarding the parameters involved in bioprocess optimization for high-value astaxanthin biosynthesis from H. pluvialis.

/pdf/a-review-on-haematococcus-pluvialis-bioprocess-optimization-320g17q6lh.pdf

A Review on Haematococcus pluvialis Bioprocess Optimization of Green and Red Stage Culture Conditions for the Production of Natural Astaxanthin.

Using green alga Haematococcus pluvialis for astaxanthin and lipid co-production: Advances and outlook.

Astaxanthin shows many biological activities. It has acquired a high economic potential and its current market is dominated by its synthetic form. However, due to the increase of the health and environmental concerns from consumers, natural forms are now preferred for human consumption. Haematococcus pluvialis is artificially cultured at an industrial scale to produce astaxanthin used as a dietary supplement. However, due to the high cost of its cultivation and its relatively low biomass and pigment productivities, the astaxanthin extracted from this microalga remains expensive and this has probably the consequence of slowing down its economic development in the lower added-value market such as food ingredient. In this review, we first aim to provide an overview of the chemical and biochemical properties of astaxanthin, as well as of its natural sources. We discuss its bioavailability, metabolism, and biological activities. We present a state-of-the-art of the biology and physiology of H. pluvialis, and highlight novel insights into the biotechnological processes which allow optimizing the biomass and astaxanthin productivities. We are trying to identify some lines of research that would improve the industrial sustainability and economic viability of this bio-production and to broaden the commercial potential of astaxanthin produced from H. pluvialis.

https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1312/8/10/789/pdf

Novel Insights into the Biotechnological Production of Haematococcus pluvialis-Derived Astaxanthin: Advances and Key Challenges to Allow Its Industrial Use as Novel Food Ingredient

Haematococcus pluvialis is a kind of native bioresource, which accumulate high abundance of astaxanthin, one of the most important bioactive compounds, under various biotic and abiotic stress conditions particularly under high light. However, the global metabolic responses to high light in general and the relationship between primary metabolism and astaxanthin accumulation in particular are still obscure. In this study, non-targeted metabolomics approach was first to be used to profile the dynamic metabolic changes of H. pluvialis along astaxanthin accumulation under different light intensities, in which >200 low molecular metabolites were identified. The integration of metabolomics data with previous transcriptomic data uncovered several metabolic pathways including raffinose family oligosaccharides biosynthesis pathway, GSH metabolism pathways, pyrimidine and purine metabolism pathways, TCA cycle, and phospholipids, that are important for astaxanthin biosynthesis under high light intensity, pinpointing a metabolic shift from primary metabolism to astaxanthin biosynthesis. Exogenous application of related metabolites such as nucleotides, carbohydrates and amino acids in algal medium confirmed the metabolic link between primary metabolism and astaxanthin biosynthesis. Our results provides with a solid metabolic base for the manipulation of astaxanthin production under high light stress, and reveals metabolic insights into the adaption strategy of H. pluvialis against light stress conditions.

Primary metabolism is associated with the astaxanthin biosynthesis in the green algae Haematococcus pluvialis under light stress

Ulva prolifera is a marine macroalga with medicinal and edible potential, but Ulva is also the causative genus behind undesirable green tides which cause serious adverse effects on coastal ecology and the environment. A strong relationship exists between U. prolifera blooms and ambient temperature; however, the metabolic mechanism involved is still largely unclear. To assess the metabolic changes in U. prolifera in response to temperature stress, the metabolic profile of U. prolifera was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and a total of 67 compounds were identified. The metabolic profiles of U. prolifera cultured under high- and low-temperature treatments were significantly different from each other, as revealed by principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). Twenty-four metabolites, including sugars and amino acids, accumulated under high-temperature stress (HTS) compared with those in the control group, while the levels of 9 and 6 metabolites significantly increased and decreased, respectively, under low-temperature stress (LTS). The galactose, starch/sucrose, and alanine/aspartate/glutamate metabolic pathways were changed under HTS, while the tricarboxylic acid cycle and starch/sucrose, tyrosine, and arginine/proline metabolism were involved in the LTS response. In addition, the metabolic network involved in temperature stress was further constructed. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to reveal metabolic shifts in U. prolifera in response to temperature stress and its results provide important insights into the mechanisms involved in the tolerance of U. prolifera to temperature stress and a basis for further research on green tide blooms.

The metabolic survival strategy of marine macroalga Ulva prolifera under temperature stress

Transcriptomic analysis unveils survival strategies of autotrophic Haematococcus pluvialis against high light stress

Comparative transcriptome analysis unveils mechanisms underlying the promoting effect of potassium iodide on astaxanthin accumulation in Haematococcus pluvialis under high light stress

The optimum concentration of Na2WO4 was explored in relation to the cell density and astaxanthin content in Haematococcus pluvialis. Then, the cellular morphology, nitrate reductase (NR) activity, soluble sugar and protein contents, and chlorophyll fluorescence were measured, and the transcriptional expression of carotenogenic genes was determined by quantitative real-time PCR. The results showed that 3.0 mmol/L of Na2WO4 was the optimum concentration to induce astaxanthin accumulation, with a maximum content of 49.41±0.13 pg/cell reached on the tenth day. The NR activity decreased significantly and continually after Na2WO4 treatment. The soluble sugar content increased gradually during the experimental period and was eventually significantly higher than that in the control. The soluble protein content increased rapidly, reached a maximum in day 0.5 and day 1 and then decreased. The effective photochemical efficiency of PSII ( Fv'/Fm') and light saturation ( Ek) first decreased and then tended to stabilize, and NADP+-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) gene expression was correlated with photosynthesis. The transcriptional expression of ipi, psy and bkt was significantly increased compared with that in the control after application of Na2WO4, and the relative expression of ipi reached the highest level on the fifth day, with a 98.03±1.92-fold increase. Our results describe a new approach to promote the effective accumulation of astaxanthin in H. pluvialis by NR inhibitor Na2WO4.

A new approach to promote astaxanthin accumulation via Na 2 WO 4 in Haematococcus pluvialis

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