Relaxor ferroelectrics were discovered almost 50 years ago among the complex oxides with perovskite structure. In recent years this field of research has experienced a revival of interest. In this paper we review the progress achieved. We consider the crystal structure including quenched compositional disorder and polar nanoregions (PNR), the phase transitions including compositional order-disorder transition, transition to nonergodic (probably spherical cluster glass) state and to ferroelectric phase. We discuss the lattice dynamics and the peculiar (especially dielectric) relaxation in relaxors. Modern theoretical models for the mechanisms of PNR formation and freezing into nonergodic glassy state are also presented.

Recent progress in relaxor ferroelectrics with perovskite structure

Piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) has emerged as a powerful and versatile tool for probing nanoscale phenomena in ferroelectric materials on the nanometer and micrometer scales. In this review, we summarize the fundamentals and recent advances in PFM, and describe the nanoscale electromechanical properties of several important ferroelectric ceramic materials widely used in memory and microelectromechanical systems applications. Probing static and dynamic polarization behavior of individual grains in PZT films and ceramics is discussed. Switching spectroscopy PFM is introduced as a useful tool for studying defects and interfaces in ceramic materials. The results on local switching and domain pinning behavior, as well as nanoscale fatigue and imprint mapping are presented. Probing domain structures and polarization dynamics in polycrystalline relaxors (PMN-PT, PLZT, doped BaTiO 3 ) are briefly outlined. Finally, applications of PFM to dimensionally confined ferro-electrics are demonstrated. The potential of PFM for studying local electromechanical phenomena in polycrystalline ferroelectrics where defects and other inhomogeneities are essential for the interpretation of their macroscopic properties is illustrated.

Electromechanical Imaging and Spectroscopy of Ferroelectric and Piezoelectric Materials: State of the Art and Prospects for the Future

Ferroelectric materials are the best dielectric and piezoelectric materials known today. Since the discovery of barium titanate in the 1940s, lead zirconate titanate ceramics in the 1950s and relaxor-PT single crystals (such as lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate and lead zinc niobate-lead titanate) in the 1980s and 1990s, perovskite ferroelectric materials have been the dominating piezoelectric materials for electromechanical devices, and are widely used in sensors, actuators and ultrasonic transducers. Energy losses (or energy dissipation) in ferroelectrics are one of the most critical issues for high power devices, such as therapeutic ultrasonic transducers, large displacement actuators, SONAR projectors, and high frequency medical imaging transducers. The losses of ferroelectric materials have three distinct types, i.e., elastic, piezoelectric and dielectric losses. People have been investigating the mechanisms of these losses and are trying hard to control and minimize them so as to reduce performance degradation in electromechanical devices. There are impressive progresses made in the past several decades on this topic, but some confusions still exist. Therefore, a systematic review to define related concepts and clear up confusions is urgently in need. With this objective in mind, we provide here a comprehensive review on the energy losses in ferroelectrics, including related mechanisms, characterization techniques and collections of published data on many ferroelectric materials to provide a useful resource for interested scientists and engineers to design electromechanical devices and to gain a global perspective on the complex physical phenomena involved. More importantly, based on the analysis of available information, we proposed a general theoretical model to describe the inherent relationships among elastic, dielectric, piezoelectric and mechanical losses. For multi-domain ferroelectric single crystals and ceramics, intrinsic and extrinsic energy loss mechanisms are discussed in terms of compositions, crystal structures, temperature, domain configurations, domain sizes and grain boundaries. The intrinsic and extrinsic contributions to the total energy dissipation are quantified. In domain engineered ferroelectric single crystals and ceramics, polarization rotations, domain wall motions and mechanical wave scatterings at grain boundaries are believed to control the mechanical quality factors of piezoelectric resonators. We show that a thorough understanding on the kinetic processes is critical in analyzing energy loss behavior and other time-dependent properties in ferroelectric materials. At the end of the review, existing challenges in the study and control of losses in ferroelectric materials are analyzed, and future perspective in resolving these issues is discussed.

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Losses in ferroelectric materials

Controlling magnetism with multiferroics

BiFeO3 simultaneously shows antiferromagnetic and ferroelectric order with high transition temperatures, i.e. T N ∼ 370°C and T C ∼ 830°C, respectively. Naturally, it has been inferred that coupling exists between the magnetic and ferroelectric order parameters like in the multiferroic manganites with low transition temperatures. A thorough investigation of the ferroelectric properties of BiFeO3 is therefore in line with the understanding of its multiferroic behaviour. Here, we review the ferroelectric properties of epitaxial (001) oriented BiFeO3 films grown by different techniques on several substrates. Structural characterization along with ferroelectric quantitative analysis point at the high quality of the films. Emphasis is put on identifying the various polarization variants and domain dynamics under an applied bias. In these studies, to unravel the intricate ferroelectric domain structure, piezo-force microscopy scans have been taken along the principal crystallographic directions. Two cases have ...

Multiferroic BiFeO3 films: Domain structure and polarization dynamics

Domain structures of unpoled as well as poled (along [001]- and [110]-direction) Pb(Zn1/3Nb2/3)O3 (PZN)-8% PbTiO3 (PT) and Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3 (PMN)-29% PT single crystals have been investigated by scanning force microscopy (SFM) in the piezoresponse mode, at room temperature. Antiparallel domain structures have been detected mostly in unpoled crystals of both materials, with a fingerprint pattern in (001)-oriented PZN-8% PT crystal. The ferroelastic domain wall has been identified in poled (110)-oriented PZN-8% PT crystal. “Writing” of ferroelectric domains has been performed by applying a dc voltage to the SFM tip. Local re-poling has been observed for all unpoled as well as for poled (001)-oriented crystals at the voltage ±60 V. Local electrical switching was successful in poled (110)-oriented PMN-29% PT at higher voltage (±120 V) but was not successful in poled (110)-oriented PZN-8% PT crystal. Domain-engineered crystals poled in [110]-direction seem to exhibit more stable (in the sense of local re-polin...

Scanning force microscopy of domain structures in Pb(Zn1/3Nb2/3)O3-8% PbTiO3 and Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3-29% PbTiO3

Ferroelectric domain structures in PZN–8%PT single crystals studied by scanning force microscopy

Experimental problems with laser interferometric measurements of piezoelectric response are examined. Theoretical analysis of the sources of systematic errors and inaccuracies was done in order to set the limits for both single and double beam interferometers. It appears that some of the published results of electric-field induced displacements of order 10−12 m are problematic. It is discussed in the paper which corrections must be taken into account and which experimental conditions must be mentioned. A new laser interferometer was set up on the basis of these conclusions.

Laser interferometry for piezoelectric material study—possibilities and limits

Double beam laser interferometry has been used to study small displacement of LATGS crystals caused by the converse piezoelectric effect. All eight nonzero mutually independent piezoelectric coefficients diλ have been derived. The temperature dependence of the piezoelectric coefficient d22 has been measured using the single beam Michelson interferometer. The phase transition temperature was determined near 324 K.

Piezoelectric coefficients of l-alanine doped TGS crystals

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Scanning force microscopy of domain structures in Pb(Zn1/3Nb2/3)O3-8% PbTiO3 and Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3-29% PbTiO3

Ferroelectric domain structures in PZN–8%PT single crystals studied by scanning force microscopy

Laser interferometry for piezoelectric material study—possibilities and limits

Piezoelectric coefficients of l-alanine doped TGS crystals