A computer program capable of acting intelligently in the world must have a general representation of the world in terms of which its inputs are interpreted. Designing such a program requires commitments about what knowledge is and how it is obtained. Thus, some of the major traditional problems of philosophy arise in artificial intelligence. More specifically, we want a computer program that decides what to do by inferring in a formal language that a certain strategy will achieve its assigned goal. This requires formalizing concepts of causality, ability, and knowledge. Such formalisms are also considered in philosophical logic. The first part of the paper begins with a philosophical point of view that seems to arise naturally once we take seriously the idea of actually making an intelligent machine. We go on to the notions of metaphysically and epistemo-logically adequate representations of the world and then to an explanation of can, causes, and knows in terms of a representation of the world by a system of interacting automata. A proposed resolution of the problem of freewill in a deterministic universe and of counterfactual conditional sentences is presented. The second part is mainly concerned with formalisms within which it can be proved that a strategy will achieve a goal. Concepts of situation, fluent, future operator, action, strategy, result of a strategy and knowledge are formalized. A method is given of constructing a sentence of first-order logic which will be true in all models of certain axioms if and only if a certain strategy will achieve a certain goal. The formalism of this paper represents an advance over McCarthy (1963) and Green (1969) in that it permits proof of the correctness of strategies that contain loops and strategies that involve the acquisition of knowledge; and it is also somewhat more concise. The third part discusses open problems in extending the formalism of part 2. The fourth part is a review of work in philosophical logic in relation to problems of artificial intelligence and a discussion of previous efforts to program ‘general intelligence’ from the point of view of this paper.

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Some philosophical problems from the standpoint of artificial intelligence

In this provocative book, Barwise and Perry tackle the slippery subject of \"meaning, \" a subject that has long vexed linguists, language philosophers, and logicians.

/pdf/situations-and-attitudes-57f065zg2d.pdf

Situations and Attitudes.

The Logical Form of Action Sentences

Preface. Acknowledgments. Introduction. 1. The Linguistic Turn and the Conceptual Turn. 2. Taking Philosophical Questions at Face Value. 3. Metaphysical Conceptions of Analyticity. 4. Epistemological Conceptions of Analyticity. 5. Knowledge of Metaphysical Modality. 6. Thought Experiments. 7. Evidence in Philosophy. 8. Knowledge Maximization. Afterword. Must Do Better. Appendix 1. Modal Logic within Counterfactual Logic. Appendix 2. Counterfactual Donkeys. Bibliography. Index

/pdf/the-philosophy-of-philosophy-2t6nw85wbh.pdf

The Philosophy of Philosophy

Gru nd legung zur Metaphysik der Sitten

Our actions are among the most important things in life; life consists in large part of actions. Action now has also become an important topic in philosophy. In the last 15 years alone about 600 papers on action theory have appeared in philosophical journals. A central question in many of these is: how can actions be explained? There is general agreement that actions are ordinarily explained by giving their reasons. But what is the connection between the reasons for an action and the action itself? When for example someone opens a window in order to let in fresh air, what is the connection between his reason for opening the window and his opening of the window? We do after all often say that we did this or that for this or that reason. Clearly we mean that there is a certain connection between reason and action such that giving the reason will contribute to an explanation of the action. But in what does this connection consist?

Explanation of Action

The relation between semantics and semiotics might seem straightforward: semantics is the study of the meaning and reference of linguistic expressions, while semiotics is the general study of signs of all kinds and in all their aspects Semiotics comprises semantics as a part Charles Morris (whom Jens Erik Fenstad mentioned in his opening speech) in Foundations of a Theory of Signs, one of the volumes of the Encyclopedia of Unified Science, in 1938, divided semiotics into three branches: syntax, semantics and pragmatics

Semantics and Semiotics

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses Stig Kanger in memoriam. The original invitation to hold the meeting in Uppsala came from Stig Kanger. Kanger made important contributions to many other areas of philosophy as well. He gave elegant formulations of various branches of elementary logic, many of them inspired by his teacher Anders Wedberg and by Tarski's work, which he admired and knew well. Kanger had new and interesting ideas on the theory of measurement and he even contributed to linguistics: in a paper on the notion of a phoneme, and in an unpublished work on time and tempus, where he presents an approach that is far superior to what was at that time available in the work of Reichenbach and Prior. Kanger picked up new formal theories very easily; he quickly appreciated their basic point and their inherent difficulties. He spotted inconsistencies straightaway and came up with counterexamples promptly. Kanger shows that by imposing various restrictions on the relation between possible worlds, for example requiring it be reflexive, symmetrical, and/or transitive, one gets natural interpretations of the systems S5 and S4 of C. I. Lewis and of Feys' calculus t.

Stig kanger in memoriam

Publisher Summary “Behaviorism” stands for a variety of attitudes and methodological positions in psychology. There are all kinds of positions whose definitions are often so varied and vague that not even their various proponents agree on them, like logical behaviorism, philosophical behaviorism, methodological behaviorism, radical behaviorism, neobehaviorism, and many more. By “intentionality,” it discusses the Brentano-Husserl notion of the directedness of the mental. The directedness of the mental simply meant that for each mental phenomenon. In studying man, one needs a very comprehensive theory that includes a theory of action, a theory of meaning and communication, a theory of reference, and a theory of knowledge. All of these are interconnected in such a way that evidence is transmitted between the theories.

Intentionality and Behaviorism

The establishment of standards for tolerable, or acceptable risks in connection with exposure to noxious agents might seem to be exclusively a matter of sound scientific methodology in estimating the probabilities for damages and reducing the uncertainties involved in extrapolating from the known into the unknown. However, the setting of standards for acceptable risk is not just a matter of probabilities and degrees of uncertainty. Acceptability is a normative notion and involves a number of factors having to do with values and human autonomy that will be discussed in the following. Whoever makes the decision, whether an individual, a group, an industrial firm or a public institution or agency, there is a number of norms and values that come into the picture, such as consent, distributional justice, and many others that will be discussed in this chapter. Some of these normative factors have been included in laws and regulations in various ways that often differ from country to country, while others are not laid down in law, but remain as ethical considerations that any decision maker should take into account.

Ethical Aspects of Risk

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