To assess the toxicity of thiamethoxam and three mixtures of insecticides to oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), we added the insecticides to diet and fed it to neonates of two laboratory colonies; mortality was assessed after 96 h. Thiamethoxam was much less toxic than insecticides previously tested. Five of six analyses of the joint action of chlorantraniliprole plus acetamiprid, esfenvalerate, or thiamethoxam indicated that toxicity was not independent and not correlated. For chlorantraniliprole plus acetamiprid, mortality was slightly lower than expected at low concentrations and greater than expected at high concentrations. For chlorantraniliprole plus esfenvalerate, mortality was less than expected at nearly all concentrations, suggesting antagonism despite the two compounds' different modes of action. For chlorantraniliprole plus thiamethoxam, observed mortality exceeded expected mortality at low concentrations, but this trend did not continue at hig...

Toxicity of Thiamethoxam and Mixtures of Chlorantraniliprole Plus Acetamiprid, Esfenvalerate, or Thiamethoxam to Neonates of Oriental Fruit Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

The development of resistance has limited the application of single insecticides and resort to tank mixtures. Mixing of two or more insecticides is very common among the Indian farmers though not recommended. Pest populations to be controlled should be susceptible or have low levels of resistance to each insecticide used in the mixture. In India more than 85% of the combination products have synthetic pyrethroids as one of the components, to which the cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) has developed very high level of resistance. Hence, sustaining the efficacy of the combination products is questionable in the near future. Combination products if permitted will be used as a matter of routine and there may be development of multiple resistant individuals. If there is any need arises, then mixtures can be considered for one time remedy. Testing of the combination products can be taken for generating data and may be recommended in India after evaluating the development of resistance. Scope and considerations for proper use of insecticide mixtures with special reference to insecticide resistance management in India have been discussed in this review.

Rationale behind the use of insecticide mixtures for the management of insecticide resistance in India

To assess the toxicity of bifenthrin and four mixtures of insecticides to tarnished plant bug, we used an insecticide dip method of green bean to treat adults of a laboratory colony; mortality was assessed after 48 h. LC50s for imidacloprid, bifenthrin, acephate, thiamethoxam, and dicrotophos were 0.12, 0.39, 0.62, 0.67, and 3.96 ppm, respectively. LC75s for imidacloprid, bifenthrin, acephate, thiamethoxam, and dicrotophos were 0.61, 4.22, 5.10, 2.65, and 7.86 ppm, respectively. Based on the LC50s and LC75s, dicrotophos was much less toxic than the other chemicals tested. PoloMix software was used to determine syngerism, antagonism, or addition effects of the mixtures. Three out of four analyses of the joint action of bifenthrin plus imidacloprid or acephate or dicrotophos showed that toxicity was not independent and not correlated. For bifenthrin plus dicrotophos, observed mortality was greater than expected mortality at most concentrations suggesting synergism. Mixtures of bifenthrin plus imidacloprid and bifenthrin plus acephate showed observed mortality significantly less than expected, suggesting antagonism. LC50s for bifenthrin plus dicrotophos, acephate, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam were 0.38, 1.06, 0.17, and 0.26 ppm, respectively. LC75s for bifenthrin plus dicrotophos, acephate, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam were 13.61, 13.18, 0.67, and 0.80 ppm, respectively. Based on the LC50s and LC75s, bifenthrin plus acephate was 3- to 10-fold less toxic than the other chemicals tested. Bifenthrin plus acephate is frequently used in tank mixes to control tarnished plant bug and other cotton pests, and the effectiveness of each individual chemical appears to be reduced in one to one ratio mixtures.

Toxicity of Bifenthrin and Mixtures of Bifenthrin Plus Acephate, Imidacloprid, Thiamethoxam, or Dicrotophos to Adults of Tarnished Plant Bug (Hemiptera: Miridae).

The bioactivity of three botanical powders in sole and combination against Callosobruchus maculatus (Fab.) was investigated at 29±3°C and relative humidity (R.H.) OF 65+5% in the laboratory. The appropriate mixing ratio of Cymbopogon citratus (C), Alstonia boonei (A) and Hyptis suaveolens  involved seven  combinations viz., C:A, C:H, A:H, C:A:H, H2:C:A, A:C2:H, H:C:A2 in simple ratios 1:1, 1:1, 1:1, 1:1, 2:1:1, 1:2:1 and 1:1:2. The sole and combinations of botanicals were separately prepared and applied at the concentrations of 1.25% per 20 g seeds of two susceptible cowpea lines viz., Oloyin and IT845-2246 in the Kilner jars. Newly emerged ten females and five males C. maculatus were introduced separately into each of the Kilner jars, and replicated four times in a completely randomized design. Data were collected on adult mortality, number of eggs laid, offspring emergence, percentage seed damage, weight loss and seed viability. Results indicated that powder of H. suaveolens evoked significant mortality (100%) after 7 days of treatment. However, lower means were recorded in oviposition and adult bruchid emergence in cowpea seed treated with powders of H. suaveolens and A. boonei. Likewise, powder of C. citratus recorded the least seed damage and this implied that the three tested botanicals were observed to be effective bio-insecticide. The combination H:C:A2 produced most desirable results causing higher adult  mortality (96.33%), low offspring emergence, lower seed damage (0%), higher seed viability (88.00%), and least seed weight loss (0%) and therefore the most bio-active mixing ratio against C. maculatus. There was however interaction and synergism effect among the different combinations.

	Key words:  Bioactivity, mixing ratio, bio-insecticide, weight loss, viability.

Sole and combined effect of three botanicals against cowpea seed bruchid, Callosobruchus maculatus Fabricius

A supervised field trial was conducted to evaluate the dissipation pattern and dietary risk assessment of the pesticides, Solomon (recommended dose, X (63+147 g a.i./ha) and double the recommended dose, 2X (126+294 g a.i./ha)); spirotetramat (X dose: 90 g a.i./ha and 2X dose: 180 g a.i./ha) and indaziflam (X dose: 62.5 g a.i./ha and 2X dose: 125 g a.i./ha) in citrus (mandarin) fruits and cropped soil. Solomon and spirotetramet were applied as foliar spray at the fruit development stage and indaziflam was applied directly on to the weeds. Fruit and soil samples thus collected were extracted using a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe analytical method for residue estimation, which was carried out using Gas Chromatography-Electron Capture Detector for betacyfluthrin and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography for all other analytes. Residues of betacyfluthrin reached below the determination level (0.05 mg/kg) after the 3rd and 5th day of treatment at X and 2X dosage while imidacloprid and spirotetramat residues reached below the determination level on the 5th and 7th day, respectively. Residues of indaziflam and its metabolites were not detected in any citrus and soil matrices. Dietary risk assessment calculated as hazard quotient and theoretical maximum dietary intake revealed the safety of the pesticides for human consumption after application of these pesticides on citrus. 

Dissipation kinetics and dietary risk assessment of pesticides in/on citrus (mandarin)

Enhanced Toxicity of Carbaryl When Combined with Synergists Against Larvae of the Bollworm and the Tobacco Budworm

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Enhanced Toxicity of Carbaryl When Combined with Synergists Against Larvae of the Bollworm and the Tobacco Budworm