The distribution, systematics and ecology of Bactrocera tryoni, the Queensland fruit fly, are reviewed. Bactrocera tryoni is a member of the B. tryoni complex of species, which currently includes four named species, viz. B. tryoni ssp., B. neohumeralis, B. melas and B. aquilonis. The species status of B. melas and B. aquilonis is unclear (they may be junior synonyms of B. tryoni) and their validity, or otherwise, needs to be confirmed as a matter of urgency. While Queensland fruit fly is regarded as a tropical species, it cannot be assumed that its distribution will spread further south under climate change scenarios. Increasing aridity and hot dry summers, as well as more complex, indirect interactions resulting from elevated CO2, make predicting the future distribution and abundance of B. tryoni difficult. The ecology of B. tryoni is reviewed with respect to current control approaches (with the exception of sterile insect technique (SIT) which is covered in a companion paper). We conclude that there are major gaps in the knowledge required to implement most noninsecticide-based management approaches. Priority areas for future research include host–plant interactions, protein and cue-lure foraging and use, spatial dynamics, development of new monitoring tools, investigating the use of natural enemies and better integration of fruit flies into general horticultural IPM systems.

The ecology of Bactrocera tryoni (Diptera: Tephritidae): what do we know to assist pest management?

CLIMEX is used to analyse the potential distribution of the Queensland fruit fly in relation to long-term average meteorological data. Different hypotheses on the mechanisms limiting the distribution of this species are examined. The analyses indicate that different CLIMEX models discriminate between locations in different ways. In particular, the models describing the limiting effects of cold stress yield substantially different estimates of the areas that can support overwintering populations. With the threshold temperature model of cold stress, extreme low temperatures exclude flies from high-altitude areas, but fail to exclude them from areas known not to support overwintering populations. These areas can only be rendered unfavourable by using the degree-day model of cold stress, which prevents sufficient thermal accumulation above the developmental threshold to maintain basic metabolic processes for long periods. In contrast, 2 models describing different modes of heat stress accumulation provide similar results and are interchangeable. Our analyses also indicate the potential for agricultural practices, such as irrigation, to alter quite dramatically the suitability of an area for Queensland fruit fly, and impact upon its geographical distribution and the pattern of activity.

The geographical distribution of the Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera (Dacus) tryoni, in relation to climate

Classical Biological Control of Arthropods in Australia

The future of the Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata invasion of California: A predictive framework

The Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Diptera: Tephritidae) is Australia's worst pest of edible fruit. The Fruit Fly Exclusion Zone (FFEZ) in south-eastern Australia encompasses some of the country's most valuable horticultural production areas and is recognised nationally and internationally as free of B. tryoni. Outbreaks of B. tryoni in the FFEZ are controlled, in part, with the inundative release of sterile B. tryoni. To determine whether release method and trial site affected trap recapture rates of sterile B. tryoni, four sterile B. tryoni releases were conducted simultaneously at two sites: Wagga Wagga, New South Wales (NSW) and Unley, South Australia (SA) from December 2007 to April 2008, using both a plastic adult rearing container (PARC) and a bin release method. PARC or bin did not affect the number of B. tryoni recaptured. Trap recapture rates of released sterile B. tryoni were higher in NSW than SA throughout the trial, and peak recapture rates occurred 1 week earlier in NSW. Humidity was higher inside the bins compared with the PARCs in three of the four releases; temperature was higher in PARCs compared with bins in two of the releases. For the only fly batch tested, emergence and flight were higher in the PARCs compared with the bins. Quality control and recapture studies showed that dye pigment was not a confounding factor in recapture rates of the main studies.

The effect of release method and trial site on recapture rates of adult sterile Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The pattern of occurrences of larvae and of trapped flies within outbreaks is different for Qfly, Dacus tryoni, and Medfly, Ceratitis capitata. For Qfly outbreaks, most flies are trapped before the first larva is found. In Medfly outbreaks, most if not all flies are usually trapped after the first larva is found. The difference is probably due to the higher efficiency of the Qfly trap. The phenology of each of the two species in Adelaide is similar to that in the areas where each is endemic, with peaks of fly catches and occurrences of larvae which mostly represent generations. For Qfly, the peaks of fly catches mostly correspond to those around Sydney, but there is no obvious spring (September-October) peak in Adelaide, possibly because of the very small total number of flies caught. For Medfly the peaks of fly catches are similar to those in Perth, except that only six flies have been caught between September and November. Medfly apparently has more generations per season in Adelaide than does Qfly, but the overall rate of increase of each species per season may be similar. Interceptions of infested fruit at road blocks suggest that there could be a single peak of

Fruit fly outbreaks in Adelaide, S. A., from 1948-49 to 1985-86. II, The phenology of both pestilent species

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Fruit fly outbreaks in Adelaide, S. A., from 1948-49 to 1985-86. II, The phenology of both pestilent species