Publisher Summary This chapter emphasizes the importance of dissecting the different ways in which diverse types of virus control measures operate before taking decisions on which to deploy. Some control measures are nonselective affecting a wide range of viral pathogens or their vectors, but others are selective targeting a particular virus or vector species and may not be transferable between pathosystems. When combining control measures within integrated disease management (IDM) strategies, success is optimized by including measures that are selective and others that are non-selective, that address both kinds of sources and phases of virus spread, and that operate in as many different ways as possible. This also applies when devising ‘interim IDM strategies' to address short-term control needs. Such strategies are necessary when information on the effectiveness of control measures for the pathosystem concerned is insufficient, but the farmers' need to take remedial action is immediate. This chapter also addresses how to determine the effectiveness and reliability of control measures used alone or in combination, economic issues associated with deciding whether one or more measures should be deployed, the ‘big picture’ problems that increasingly hinder success in tackling virus diseases and the exciting opportunities provided by new technologies.

Control of plant virus diseases.

Summary
I. INTRODUCTION
II. APHID-TRANSMITTED VIRUSES


(a)Potyvirus group


(i)Bean yellow mosaic virus
(ii)Clover yellow vein virus
(iii)Bean common mosaic virus
(iv)Peanut mottle virus
(v)Bidens mottle virus


(b)Cucumovirus group


(i)Cucumber mosaic virus
(ii)Peanut stunt virus


(c)Alfalfa mosaic virus
(d)Fabavirus group: broad bean wilt virus
(e)Pea enation mosaic virus
(f)Luteovirus group: soybean dwarf virus
(g)Rhabdovirus group: lettuce necrotic yellows virus


III.THRIPS-TRANSMITTED VIRUSES

Tomato spotted wilt virus



IV.NEMATODE-TRANSMITTED VIRUSES


(a)Tobravirus group: pea early browning virus
(b)Nepovirus group: tomato black ring virus


V.VIRUS-LIKE DISEASES


(a)Lupin leaf curl ‘virus’
(b)‘Lupin witches’ broom disease


VI.CONTROL VII. CONCLUSIONS
VII.CONCLUSIONS

Virus diseases of lupins

Potato virus Y (PVY) is transmitted non-persistently by winged morphs of many aphid species and is a major problem in seed potato production. In order to evaluate the potential of straw mulch applications (4-5 t ha-1) and presprouting on PVY reduction, small scale organically managed field experiments were carried out in Northern Hessen, Germany, over 3 yr. In all years mulching significantly reduced aphid infestation on leaves as well as PVY incidence in tubers. For the effect of presprouting
the temporal coincidence of two factors was crucial � crop emergence and aphid flight activity.
Presprouting decreased PVY incidence when in the phase of early crop emergence aphid spring flight activity was low, but increased it, although not significantly, when prominent aphid flight peaks occurred in this critical period. Straw mulch was most effective when vector pressure was concentrated early in the year acting as a PVY protectant for young plants. In later growth stages its effect declined gradually with increasing ground coverage of the crop. Combined mulching and presprouting had a synergistic, complementary effect on reduction of PVY incidence. In an on-farm experiment in 2001 scaling up
the area mulched stepwise from 100 m² to 900 m² consistently kept aphid infestation at reduced levels.

Potato virus Y reduction by straw mulch in organic potatoes

Between 2006 and 2010, 5324 samples from at least 34 weed, two cultivated legume and 11 native species were collected from three cucurbit-growing areas in tropical or subtropical Western Australia. Two new alternative hosts of zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) were identified, the Australian native cucurbit Cucumis maderaspatanus, and the naturalised legume species Rhyncosia minima. Low-level (0.7%) seed transmission of ZYMV was found in seedlings grown from seed collected from zucchini (Cucurbita pepo) fruit infected with isolate Cvn-1. Seed transmission was absent in >9500 pumpkin (C. maxima and C. moschata) seedlings from fruit infected with isolate Knx-1. Leaf samples from symptomatic cucurbit plants collected from fields in five cucurbit-growing areas in four Australian states were tested for the presence of ZYMV. When 42 complete coat protein (CP) nucleotide (nt) sequences from the new ZYMV isolates obtained were compared to those of 101 complete CP nt sequences from five other continents, phylogenetic analysis of the 143 ZYMV sequences revealed three distinct groups (A, B and C), with four subgroups in A (I-IV) and two in B (I-II). The new Australian sequences grouped according to collection location, fitting within A-I, A-II and B-II. The 16 new sequences from one isolated location in tropical northern Western Australia all grouped into subgroup B-II, which contained no other isolates. In contrast, the three sequences from the Northern Territory fitted into A-II with 94.6-99.0% nt identities with isolates from the United States, Iran, China and Japan. The 23 new sequences from the central west coast and two east coast locations all fitted into A-I, with 95.9-98.9% nt identities to sequences from Europe and Japan. These findings suggest that (i) there have been at least three separate ZYMV introductions into Australia and (ii) there are few changes to local isolate CP sequences following their establishment in remote growing areas. Isolates from A-I and B-II induced chlorotic symptoms in inoculated leaves of Chenopodium quinoa, but an isolate from A-II caused symptomless infection. One of three commercial ZYMV-specific antibodies did not detect all Australian isolates reliably by ELISA. A multiplex real-time PCR using dual-labelled probes was developed, which distinguished between Australian ZYMV isolates belonging to phylogenetic groups A-I, A-II and B-II.

Zucchini yellow mosaic virus: biological properties, detection procedures and comparison of coat protein gene sequences

Minimising losses caused by Zucchini yellow mosaic virus in vegetable cucurbit crops in tropical, sub-tropical and Mediterranean environments through cultural methods and host resistance.

The use of reflective mulch to reduce the incidence of watermelon mosaic virus in Western Australia

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The use of reflective mulch to reduce the incidence of watermelon mosaic virus in Western Australia