In the era of global industrialisation, the exploration of natural resources has served as a source of experimentation for science and advanced technologies, giving rise to the manufacturing of products with high aggregate value in the world market, such as biosurfactants. Biosurfactants are amphiphilic microbial molecules with hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties that partition at liquid/liquid, liquid/gas or liquid/solid interfaces. Such characteristics allow these biomolecules to play a key role in emulsification, foam formation, detergency and dispersal, which are desirable qualities in different industries. Biosurfactant production is considered one of the key technologies for development in the 21st century. Besides exerting a strong positive impact on the main global problems, biosurfactant production has considerable importance to the implantation of sustainable industrial processes, such as the use of renewable resources and “green” products. Biodegradability and low toxicity have led to the intensification of scientific studies on a wide range of industrial applications for biosurfactants in the field of bioremediation as well as the petroleum, food processing, health, chemical, agricultural and cosmetic industries. In this paper, we offer an extensive review regarding knowledge accumulated over the years and advances achieved in the incorporation of biomolecules in different industries.

Biosurfactants: Multifunctional Biomolecules of the 21st Century

Sophorolipids are surface-active compounds synthesized by a selected number of yeast species. They have been known for over 40 years, but because of growing environmental awareness, they recently regained attention as biosurfactants due to their biodegradability, low ecotoxicity, and production based on renewable resources. In this paper, an overview is given of the producing yeast strains and various aspects of fermentative sophorolipid production. Also, the biochemical pathways and regulatory mechanisms involved in sophorolipid biosynthesis are outlined. To conclude, a summary is given on possible applications of sophorolipids, either as native or modified molecules.

Microbial production and application of sophorolipids

In recent years, heavy metals pollution is found to be a serious environmental issue and various technologies are being discovered for their cleanup from environment. The use of biosurfactants for this purpose was found to be an eco-friendly approach and also an alternate to conventional complex remediation systems. Due to their diversity, biosurfactants are considered as a potential candidate for the environmental cleanup of pollutants. Therefore, a greater attention was paid on biosurfactants and identifying their potential applications. By considering the importance of biosurfactants, the present review article presents an exhaustive evaluation of different sources of biosurfactants and also their properties and applications which is the focus of future studies.

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Biosurfactants-Types, Sources and Applications

Batch and continuous fermentation of succinic acid from wood hydrolysate by Mannheimia succiniciproducens MBEL55E

Yarrowia lipolytica was cultivated on mixtures of saturated free fatty acids (an industrial derivative of animal fat called stearin), technical glycerol (the main by-product of bio-diesel production facilities), and glucose. The utilization of technical glycerol and stearin as co-substrates resulted in higher lipid synthesis and increased citric acid production than the combination of glucose and stearin. The lipids produced contained significant amounts of stearic acid (50-70%, wt/wt) and lower ones of palmitic (15-20%, wt/wt), oleic (7-20%, wt/wt), and linoleic (2-7%, wt/wt) acid. Single-cell oil having a composition similar to cocoa-butter up to 3.4 g/L was produced, whereas in some cases relatively increased citric acid quantities (up to 14 g/L) were excreted into the growth medium. The microorganism presented a high specificity for lauric, myristic, and palmitic acid, while a discrimination for the stearic acid was observed. As a conclusion, microbial metabolism could be directed by using mixtures of inexpensive saturated fats, glycerol, and glucose as co-substrates, in order to accumulate lipids with predetermined composition, e.g., cocoa-butter equivalents.

Accumulation of a cocoa-butter-like lipid by Yarrowia lipolytica cultivated on agro-industrial residues.

The effect of soybean oil and glucose on the growth of Torulopsis bombicola and sophorose lipid production in continuous culture was investigated. As the dilution rate in 100 g/l glucose and 100 g/l soybean oil medium was increased, the dry cell weight and sophorose lipid concentration decreased. Sophorose lipid productivity, however, was maximum at a dilution rate of 0.03 h−1. The cell yield from glucose and the sophorose lipid production from soybean oil were approximately constant regardless of the dilution rate. The specific consumption rate of soybean oil was closely related to the specific production rate of sophorose lipid. These results suggest that soybean oil was used only for sophorose lipid production whereas glucose was used only for cell mass and maintenance. When the soybean oil concentration was varied at fixed dilution rate in 100 g/l glucose medium, a high concentration of soybean oil was found to inhibit sophorose lipid production.

Effect of soybean oil and glucose on sophorose lipid fermentation by Torulopsis bombicola in continuous culture

A new anionic high molecular weight polysaccharide, Methylan, was produced byMethylobacterium organophilum from methanol as a sole source of carbon and energy under the specific culture conditions By GPC and light scattering, the molecular weight was determined to be 2–4×106 dalton and the distribution of molecular weight was very homogeneous Methylan was composed of carbohydrate (80%), uronic acid (12%), protein (6%) and pyruvic acid (5%) The sugar composition of Methylan was identified as glucose, galactose and mannose with the approximate molar ratio of 2∶3∶2 Methylan solution showed a pseudoplastic non-Newtonian fluid property at the concentration above 005% At the concentration of 1% Methylan solution, the consistency index was 18,000 centipoise which was almost 10 times higher than that of Xanthan and the flow behavior index was 015

Characteristics of a novel high viscosity polysaccharide, methylan, produced by Methylobacterium organophilum

Cell growth increased proportionally to the initial concentration of ammonium ion, however, methylan production was significantly inhibited at the high concentration of ammonium ion. The control of ammonium ion within the desired level(usually 0.45 g/l) was needed to reduce the inhibition. Methylan production was increased to 12.5 g/l by maintaining ammonium ion below 0.15 g/l.

Production of a polysaccharide, methylan, in Methylobacterium organophilum by controlling ammonium ion

Candida tropicalis, a strain isolated from the sludge of a factory manufacturing xylose, produced a high xylitol concentration of 131 g/l from 150 g/l xylose at 45 h in a flask. Above 150 g/l xylose, however, volumetric xylitol production rates decreased because of a lag period in cell growth. In fed-batch culture, the volumetric production rate and xylitol yield from xylose varied substantially with the controlled xylose concentration and were maximum at a controlled xylose concentration of 60 g/l. To increase the xylitol yield from xylose, feeding experiments using different ratios of xylose and glucose were carried out in a fermentor. The maximum xylitol yield from 300 g/l xylose was 91% at a glucose/xylose feeding ratio of 15%, while the maximum volumetric production rate of xylitol was 3.98 g l−1 h−1 at a glucose/xylose feeding ratio of 20%. Xylitol production was found to decrease markedly as its concentration rose above 250 g/l. In order to accumulate xylitol to 250 g/l, 270 g/l xylose was added in total, at a glucose/xylose feeding ratio of 15%. Under these conditions, a final xylitol production of 251 g/l, which corresponded to a yield of 93%, was obtained from 270 g/l xylose in 55 h.

Increase of xylitol yield by feeding xylose and glucose in Candida tropicalis

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Effect of soybean oil and glucose on sophorose lipid fermentation by Torulopsis bombicola in continuous culture

Characteristics of a novel high viscosity polysaccharide, methylan, produced by Methylobacterium organophilum

Production of a polysaccharide, methylan, in Methylobacterium organophilum by controlling ammonium ion

Increase of xylitol yield by feeding xylose and glucose in Candida tropicalis