Decimal reduction values (D value) for 30 viruses were determined. The weighted D values of the viruses suspended in Eagle's minimum essential medium ranged from 0.39 to 0.53 Mrads. It was necessary to increase the radiation dose by a factor of >3 to inactivate virus suspended in Eagle's minimum essential medium as compared to the same virus suspended in distilled water. The destruction rate curves were of a first-order reaction.

https://aem.asm.org/content/aem/22/1/61.full.pdf

Inactivation of thirty viruses by gamma radiation.

Chromosomes and cellular radiosensitivity-II

The virion of a poxvirus is an enveloped particle that differs significantly from other enveloped viruses. Apart from DNA, proteins and phospholipids, poxvirus virions also contain carbohydrates. They show a high environmental stability and remain contagious over a period of several months in an ambient environment. Poxviruses show an extraordinary high resistance to drying, which is further enhanced by materials in which they are released into the environment (e.g., dermal crusts, serum, blood residues and other excretions). Dried Vaccinia virus can be stored at 4°C over a period of more than 35 weeks without any loss of infectivity. Frozen in buffer at -20°C, a titer reduction of only 3 log-steps is observed within 15 years. In general, virus isolated from patients and/or environment is more resistant to environmental conditions than virus deriving from cell cultures. In addition, poxviruses show a high stability towards different pH values. Due to their low lipid content, they are less sensitive to organic solvents/disinfectants compared to other enveloped viruses. This is the reason for the considerably higher resistance of poxviruses to diethylether in comparison to other enveloped viruses. Despite all of these aspects, poxviruses are highly sensitive to all common approved disinfection regimens. Cell-bound poxvirus may show a higher stability than cell-free virus. This phenomenon is not observed if quaternary ammonium compounds are used. Due to the possible renewed importance of smallpox, e.g., in case of abuse in biological warfare, but also because of the impact of poxviruses in veterinary medicine, representatives of the poxvirus family have been chosen to test the efficacy of common disinfectants. The common sterilization procedures - thermal, chemical, an/or radiation - are usually effective against poxviruses.

Environmental resistance, disinfection, and sterilization of poxviruses

https://mmbr.asm.org/content/mmbr/6/2/79.full.pdf

Elementary bodies of vaccinia

Whenever a new virus is isolated and it becomes possible to produce it in reasonable yield and to carry out assays with reasonable accuracy and convenience, one immediately becomes curious about its physical characteristics, such as size, shape, and internal structure, in the hope that this knowledge will help in our understanding of its biological properties and also its relationship to other viruses. Great progress in the physical characterization of viruses has been made in the last decade with the widespread adoption of tissue culture techniques for virus cultivation and assay, on the one hand, and with the common availability of such physical tools as the analytical ultracentrifuge, electron microscope, and radioisotopes on the other. The recent use of ionexchange chromatography for the purification and fractionation of animal viruses has also greatly stimulated biophysical and biochemical studies. Ionizing radiation is of unique value in the physical study of animal viruses because neither high purity nor large quantities of virus are essential. Furthermore, and perhaps more significantly, inactivation by ionization gives information about size and shape of virus components in association with their biological activities. The application of ionizing radiation studies to calculations of the dimensions of virus components has been presented in detail by Lea (1947) and by Pollard (1953, 1955, 1957). In their classic work, published almost twenty years ago, Lea and Salarnan (1942) laid the foundations of the application of ionizing radiation to biological systems, particularly viruses, establishing, first, that inactivation follows an exponential curve, and, second, that 1 ionization is usually sufficient to inactivate 1 biologically active unit. Furthermore, i t was clearly shown that the slope of the inactivation curve was a measure of the volume of the unit involved and that, in fact, a t the point where activity was reduced to 37 per cent of the original, this volume is equal to the reciprocal of the number of ionizations per cubic centimeter. In a still earlier paper Gowen and Lucas (1939) also described exponential inactivation of vaccinia virus with X rays. Since the work of Lea and Salarnan in the early 1940s on vaccinia virus, and extensive studies on papilloma and fibroma virus by Friedewald and Anderson (1941, 1943) and by Syverton et ul. (1941), published work on the effects of ionizing radiation on animal viruses was relatively sparse until about five years years ago. This is possibly because most biophysicists dislike infective agents and because, conversely, most biologists distrust complicated machines. With the simplicity and convenience of modern high-energy radiation sources, however, it is becoming increasingly rewarding to correlate these 2 disciplines. Radiation may be applied to animal viruses on three levels of sophistication: (1) total inactivation of infectivity, either for preparing vaccines or for steriliz-

Ionizing radiation and its effects on animal viruses

The Inactivation of Vaccinia Virus by Radiations

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The Inactivation of Vaccinia Virus by Radiations