http://fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/~hmcbride/1238Giedd%20adol.%20brain%20dev09.pdf

Brain development in children and adolescents: insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging.

Purpose Focal cortical dysplasias (FCD) are localized regions of malformed cerebral cortex and are very frequently associated with epilepsy in both children and adults. A broad spectrum of histopathology has been included in the diagnosis of FCD. An ILAE task force proposes an international consensus classification system to better characterize specific clinicopathological FCD entities. Methods Thirty-two Task Force members have reevaluated available data on electroclinical presentation, imaging, neuropathological examination of surgical specimens as well as postsurgical outcome. Key findings The ILAE Task Force proposes a three-tiered classification system. FCD Type I refers to isolated lesions, which present either as radial (FCD Type Ia) or tangential (FCD Type Ib) dyslamination of the neocortex, microscopically identified in one or multiple lobes. FCD Type II is an isolated lesion characterized by cortical dyslamination and dysmorphic neurons without (Type IIa) or with balloon cells (Type IIb). Hence, the major change since a prior classification represents the introduction of FCD Type III, which occurs in combination with hippocampal sclerosis (FCD Type IIIa), or with epilepsy-associated tumors (FCD Type IIIb). FCD Type IIIc is found adjacent to vascular malformations, whereas FCD Type IIId can be diagnosed in association with epileptogenic lesions acquired in early life (i.e., traumatic injury, ischemic injury or encephalitis). Significance This three-tiered classification system will be an important basis to evaluate imaging, electroclinical features, and postsurgical seizure control as well as to explore underlying molecular pathomechanisms in FCD.

/pdf/the-clinicopathologic-spectrum-of-focal-cortical-dysplasias-9ml6bps7xb.pdf

The clinicopathologic spectrum of focal cortical dysplasias: A consensus classification proposed by an ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Diagnostic Methods Commission

Normal development of brain circuits.

Recent in vivo structural imaging studies have shown spatial and temporal patterns of brain maturation between childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood that are generally consistent with postmortem studies of cellular maturational events such as increased myelination and synaptic pruning. In this study, we conducted detailed spatial and temporal analyses of growth and gray matter density at the cortical surface of the brain in a group of 35 normally developing children, adolescents, and young adults. To accomplish this, we used high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging and novel computational image analysis techniques. For the first time, in this report we have mapped the continued postadolescent brain growth that occurs primarily in the dorsal aspects of the frontal lobe bilaterally and in the posterior temporo-occipital junction bilaterally. Notably, maps of the spatial distribution of postadolescent cortical gray matter density reduction are highly consistent with maps of the spatial distribution of postadolescent brain growth, showing an inverse relationship between cortical gray matter density reduction and brain growth primarily in the superior frontal regions that control executive cognitive functioning. Inverse relationships are not as robust in the posterior temporo-occipital junction where gray matter density reduction is much less prominent despite late brain growth in these regions between adolescence and adulthood. Overall brain growth is not significant between childhood and adolescence, but close spatial relationships between gray matter density reduction and brain growth are observed in the dorsal parietal and frontal cortex. These results suggest that progressive cellular maturational events, such as increased myelination, may play as prominent a role during the postadolescent years as regressive events, such as synaptic pruning, in determining the ultimate density of mature frontal lobe cortical gray matter.

https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/21/22/8819.full.pdf

Mapping Continued Brain Growth and Gray Matter Density Reduction in Dorsal Frontal Cortex: Inverse Relationships during Postadolescent Brain Maturation

Objective. Cross-sectional research has suggested that television viewing may be associated with decreased attention spans in children. However, longitu- dinal data of early television exposure and subsequent attentional problems have been lacking. The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that early television exposure (at ages 1 and 3) is associated with attentional problems at age 7. Methods. We used the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, a representative longitudinal data set. Our main outcome was the hyperactivity subscale of the Be- havioral Problems Index determined on all participants at age 7. Children who were >1.2 standard deviations above the mean were classified as having attentional problems. Our main predictor was hours of television watched daily at ages 1 and 3 years. Results. Data were available for 1278 children at age 1 and 1345 children at age 3. Ten percent of children had attentional problems at age 7. In a logistic regression model, hours of television viewed per day at both ages 1 and 3 was associated with attentional problems at age 7 (1.09 (1.03-1.15) and 1.09 (1.02-1.16)), respectively. Conclusions. Early television exposure is associated with attentional problems at age 7. Efforts to limit tele- vision viewing in early childhood may be warranted, and additional research is needed. Pediatrics 2004;113:708 - 713; ADHD, television, attentional problems, prevention. ABBREVIATIONS. ADHD, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disor- der; NLSY, National Longitudinal Survey of Youth; BPI, Behav- ioral Problems Index; SD, standard deviation; CES-D, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale.

https://people.cas.sc.edu/dubinsk/Ling300/Early.television.exposure.Pediatrics.2004.pdf

Early Television Exposure and Subsequent Attentional Problems in Children

The pattern of normal white-matter maturation as demonstrated with high-field-strength magnetic resonance (MR) imaging was investigated. Eighty-two neurologically normal infants were examined with a 1.5-T unit with use of spin-echo T1-weighted and T2-weighted pulse sequences. The infants ranged in age from 4 days to 2 years. The images were assessed for qualitative changes of white matter relative to gray matter in 14 anatomic areas of the brain and correlated with the patient's age. The MR images showed that changes of brain maturation occur in an orderly manner, commencing in the brain stem and progressing to the cerebellum and the cerebrum. Changes caused by brain myelination were seen earlier on T1-weighted images than on T2-weighted images, possibly because of T1 shortening by the components of the developing myelin sheaths. The later changes on the T2-weighted images correlated best with the development of myelination as demonstrated with histochemical methods. T1-weighted images were most useful in the monitoring of normal brain development in the first 6-8 months of life; T2-weighted images were more useful after 6 months. The milestones in the MR appearance of normal maturation of the brain are presented. Persistent areas of long T2 relaxation times are seen superior and dorsal to the ventricular trigone in all infants examined and should not be mistaken for ischemic change.

Normal maturation of the neonatal and infant brain: MR imaging at 1.5 T.

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Normal maturation of the neonatal and infant brain: MR imaging at 1.5 T.